Sixteen Kingdoms generals

Murong Lin

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Murong Lin was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan. He was a son of the founding emperor Murong Chui and a brother of Murong Bao ; for a while, he himself was a pretender to the Later Yan throne. He was known both for his abilities and his treachery, and he betrayed both his father and his brothers Murong Ling and Murong Bao on separate occasions. Eventually, he was executed by his uncle Murong De, the founder of Southern Yan.

Before Later Yan's founding

The first reference to Murong Lin in history was in 369, when Murong Chui, then a Former Yan prince, fled to Former Qin after he came after suspicion of the emperor Murong Wei's mother and the regent Murong Ping. Previously, Murong Chui's plan was to flee to the old capital Longcheng and occupy it, and then seek reconciliation with Empress Dowager Kezuhun, but on the way, Murong Lin, who was then unfavored by Murong Chui, fled back to the capital Yecheng and revealed his father's plans, forcing his father to readjust his plan and flee to Former Qin instead.

For his treachery, however, Murong Lin appeared to be not appreciated by Empress Kezuhun, and he appeared to have been exiled to Longcheng as a soldier under the command of his cousin Murong Liang the Prince of Bohai -- or possibly to the even more remote Shacheng , described to be 300 kilometers northeast of Longcheng. In 370, after Murong Ling had been tricked by the Former Qin prime minister into defecting back to Former Yan, Murong Ling was exiled to Shacheng, and he started a rebellion with fellow exiles, planning to seize Longcheng, but Murong Lin revealed his plan to Murong Liang, who then prepared for the attack. Murong Ling's subordinate She Gui then rose against him and killed him.

As a result of Murong Lin's treachery, after Former Qin conquered Former Yan later in 370, and Murong Chui accompanied the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān in entering Yecheng, Murong Chui put Murong Lin's mother to death, but did not have the heart to execute Murong Lin as well, but only expelled him from the household and ordered him to live elsewhere. However, in late 383 and 384, as Murong Chui rose against Former Qin following Fu Jiān's defeat at the Battle of Fei River at the hand of troops, Murong Lin offered many useful strategies to his father, and his father changed his view of Murong Lin, favoring him as much as other sons.

During Murong Chui's reign

After Murong Chui officially declared independence and established Later Yan later in 384, Murong Lin served as one of his generals in campaigns against Former Qin remnants, semi-independent warlords, and other states. He appeared to be effective in these campaigns. In 386, Murong Chui created him the Prince of Zhao. In 386-387 and 390-391, he commanded armies to, in conjunction with the Later Yan vassal Northern Wei's prince , fight the Xiongnu chieftain Liu Xian and later other rebels that threatened Tuoba Gui's safety. It was in 391 when he saw Tuoba Gui's abilities, and he recommended to Murong Chui to force Tuoba Gui to take up residence at the Later Yan capital Zhongshan and entrust Northern Wei to a brother. Murong Chui refused.

After Tuoba Gui renounced his allegiance to Later Yan in 391, he began to harass Later Yan borders, and in 395, Murong Chui sent his crown prince Murong Bao to lead an expedition, with Murong Lin and Murong Nong the Prince of Liaoxi as his assistant commanders. However, during the campaign, as Later Yan and Northern Wei armies stalemated across the Yellow River near the Northern Wei capital Shengle , Tuoba Gui spread false rumors that Murong Chui was dead, and Murong Lin's subordinates Muyu Song tried to start a coup to overthrow Murong Bao and make Murong Lin emperor, but was discovered and killed. This led to friction between the brothers, and the Later Yan forces withdrew. Murong Bao left Murong Lin to be rear guard against a Northern Wei attack, but Murong Lin did not take Tuoba Gui seriously and therefore did not look for Northern Wei troops, and Tuoba Gui intercepted Murong Bao's main forces at and annihilated most of the troops, leading to further ambition by Tuoba Gui to eventually conquer Later Yan. In 396, Murong Chui personally led a campaign against Northern Wei that had initial successes, but as the army passed through Canhe Slope, they mourned in such a great manner that Murong Chui, in shame and anger, grew ill, and the army was forced to retreat. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

During Murong Bao's reign

Despite the suspicions that they might have had of each other prior to the defeat at Canhe Slope, Murong Bao and Murong Lin reconciled, and Murong Lin was initially one of Murong Bao's most trusted generals. After Tuoba Gui defeated Murong Nong and seized Bing Province , he headed for Zhongshan, and Murong Bao put Murong Lin in charge of Zhongshan's defenses. Murong Lin advocated defending the city and not engaging Northern Wei forces, much to Murong Nong and Murong Long's frustration.

In spring 397, however, as Zhongshan remained under siege by Northern Wei forces, Murong Lin tried to start a coup inside the city to overthrow Murong Bao. After his attempt failed, he fled out of Zhongshan and took up post in the Taihang Mountains. Apprehensive that Murong Lin might seize relief forces commanded by the Prince of Qinghe, Murong Bao abandoned Zhongshan. The people of Zhongshan initially supported Murong Xiang the Duke of Kaifeng as their leader to continue resisting Northern Wei. In summer 397, Murong Xiang claimed imperial title, but drew the anger of the people because he, apprehensive of Northern Wei forces , refused to let the citizens, under a severe famine, to forage food outside the city, and was cruel in his rule. Murong Lin made a surprise attack on Zhongshan, whose gates were opened for him, and he arrested and killed Murong Xiang. Murong Lin then himself claimed imperial title and permitted the people to forage food -- but then, failed to take the opportunity after enough food was gathered to engage Northern Wei forces, and eventually, as wild food dwindled, Northern Wei forces defeated him and captured Zhongshan. He fled to Yecheng to the protection of his uncle Murong De the Prince of Fanyang .

Murong Lin advised Murong De that Yecheng was too large of a city to defend, and that he should consider abandoning it and taking up position at Huatai south of the Yellow River. Murong De agreed and abandoned Yecheng, taking up residence at Huatai. Then, Murong Lin offered imperial title to Murong De, who did not take such title but assumed imperial powers under the title Prince of Yan, thus establishing Southern Yan. He made Murong Lin a key general, but Murong Lin then planned another rebellion, and Murong De executed him.

Murong Long

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Murong Long , formally Prince Kang of Gaoyang , was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan. He was a son of the founding emperor Murong Chui and a brother of Murong Bao , and when his brother's empire was under threat from the rival Northern Wei's prince , he tried to save it, but was killed by his nephew , intent on seizing power from both his father and his uncles.

Before Later Yan's founding

The first reference to Murong Long in history was in 369, when Murong Chui, then a Former Yan prince, fled to Former Qin after he came after suspicion of the emperor Murong Wei's mother and the regent Murong Ping; Murong Long was one of his sons who fled with him. When Murong Chui subsequently resolved to rebel against Former Qin after its emperor Fu Jiān was defeated at the Battle of Fei River in his attempt to conquer and reunite China, Murong Long was involved in his first act of rebellion — massacring the Di soldiers that Murong Chui's deputy, Fu Feilong , commanded. Murong Chui subsequently declared the independence of Later Yan in 384.

During Murong Chui's reign

Throughout the next few years, Murong Long largely served as a general directly under his father's command, as Later Yan tried to establish itself over the old territory of Former Yan. In 384, when Murong Chui was nearly trapped by an ambush by the Former Qin viceroy Fu Pi, Murong Long was the one who rescued him from the encounter. In 386, Murong Chui created him the Prince of Gaoyang. He continued to distinguish himself in campaigns against independent warlords and Jin generals. In 389, when his brother Murong Nong, himself a distinguished general, was recalled from his post as viceroy at the old Former Yan capital Longcheng , Murong Long replaced him as viceroy, and he followed Murong Nong's policies. The populace favored him as much as Murong Nong.

During Murong Chui's reign, Murong Nong and Murong Long were the most well-regarded princes. Because of this, Murong Chui's wife Empress Duan Yuanfei once suggested to him that the crown prince Murong Bao lacked abilities to govern, and Murong Chui should choose either Murong Nong or Murong Long instead. Murong Chui, believing Murong Bao to be capable, rejected her suggestion.

Around the new year 396, after an army commanded by Murong Bao had suffered a crushing defeat by Northern Wei's prince at the Battle of Canhe Slope, Murong Chui planned a second campaign against Northern Wei, and he recalled Murong Long and his troops back to the capital Zhongshan , replacing him as viceroy with Murong Bao's son the Duke of Qinghe. With Murong Long's fresh troops leading the way and with Murong Long and Murong Nong as forward commanders, the campaign against Northern Wei was initially successful, but as the army passed through Canhe Slope, they mourned in such a great manner that Murong Chui, in shame and anger, grew ill, and the army was forced to retreat. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

During Murong Bao's reign

Murong Bao, although aware of Empress Duan's earlier suggestion to make Murong Nong or Murong Long crown prince , appeared to trust his brothers greatly. However, in fall 396, Northern Wei launched a major campaign against Later Yan, and Tuoba Gui, after defeating Murong Nong and seizing Bing Province , then advanced against Zhongshan. Murong Bao put another brother, Murong Lin the Prince of Zhao, in charge of Zhongshan's defenses, and Murong Lin advocated the strategy of defending the city and not engaging Northern Wei, much to Murong Long and Murong Nong's frustration.

In spring 397, after Murong Lin failed in a coup attempt, he fled out of the capital, and Murong Bao, in fear that Murong Lin would seize a relief force commanded by his son Murong Hui the Prince of Qinghe, decided to abandon Zhongshan. Murong Nong's and Murong Long's subordinates tried to persuade each to stay in Zhongshan rather than to follow Murong Bao, but each refused, feeling that loyalty to their brother required them to follow him. They therefore followed Murong Bao and joined Murong Hui's army.

However, Murong Hui was resentful that he was not made crown prince, a position given to his younger brother Murong Ce , and he considered seizing the position by force. Murong Bao, realizing this, tried to transfer some of Murong Hui's army to the commands of Murong Nong and Murong Long, but this only made Murong Hui more resentful, and he acted first against his uncles, sending assassins against them. Murong Long was killed, but Murong Nong survived the attack but was severely wounded , and Murong Hui, who then openly declared a coup, was then defeated and killed.

Murong Nong

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Murong Nong , formally Prince Huanlie of Liaoxi , was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan. He was a son of the founding emperor Murong Chui and a brother of Murong Bao . Throughout most of the state's history, he was admired by the people and officials alike for his military and governance abilities, but his inexplicable failures in 398 helped to lead to the downfall of himself, his brother Murong Bao, and the Later Yan state.

Before Later Yan's founding

The first reference to Murong Nong in history was in 369, when Murong Chui, then a Former Yan prince, fled to Former Qin after he came after suspicion of the emperor Murong Wei's mother and the regent Murong Ping; Murong Nong was one of his sons who fled with him. He was mentioned as having told his father in 377 that, in light of the capable prime minister 's death, the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān's reign appeared to be deteriorating and that Murong Chui should consider reestablishing Yan . Murong Chui laughed off his suggestion at this point but kept it in mind.

Murong Nong would renew his suggestion in 383 after Former Qin had failed in its attempt to conquer and been severely weakened in the defeat at the Battle of Fei River. Murong Chui agreed this time, and after receiving Fu Jiān's permission to go on a mission to try to pacify the northeastern empire, instead plotted rebellion. As part of the plan, as Murong Chui rose south of the Yellow River near Luoyang, Murong Nong and his cousin Murong Kai started a rebellion of their own north of the Yellow River in spring 384. He quickly defeated the highly-regarded Former Qin general Shi Yue , and became a major menace for Former Qin troops, and he was known both for his military strategies and strict discipline.

During Murong Chui's reign

In spring 384, Murong Chui declared the establishingment of Later Yan, and Murong Nong continued to contribute greatly to the campaigns that he would wage the next year against Former Qin remnants and other generals who had maintained semi-independence in light of Former Qin's collapse. Around the new year 386, Murong Nong stamped out all remaining Former Qin resistance in the You and Ping Provinces, including the rebel Yu Yan , and further recovered some commanderies that Goguryeo had seized. Murong Chui made him effective viceroy of You and Ping Provinces, in charge of the old Former Yan capital Longcheng , and he remained in that post for several years, apparently greatly favored by the people of the region. In 386, Murong Chui created him the Prince of Liaoxi.

In 389, believing that there were no longer matters for him to attend to in the You/Ping region, Murong Nong submitted a report to Murong Chui requesting a recall to the capital Zhongshan , stating, in part:

:''I initially advanced my forces here to suppress rebels, and I was ordered to keep these provinces safe. My soldiers have rested for several years, and there are still many bandits in Qing , Xu , Jing , and Yong Provinces. I hope that soon someone will succeed me here, so that I may return and expend all my effort for the empire -- so that I do not have unspent strength while I am alive and regrets when I die.''

Murong Chui, upon receiving the report, summoned Murong Nong to the capital, and had his brother Murong Long the Prince of Gaoyang succeed him at Longcheng. For the next several years, Murong Nong participated in a number of his father's campaigns and was particularly effective in the campaign that destroyed the independent state of and its emperor Zhai Zhao in 392. He also played a major role in Later Yan's destruction of Western Yan in 394, allowing Later Yan to seize modern Shanxi. In 394, Murong Nong attacked Jin's Qing Province, then under the governance of former Later Yan vassal Bilü Hun and had some success against Bilü, but around the new year 395, for reasons unknown, Murong Chui ordered him to return to Zhongshan and abandon the campaign.

During Murong Chui's reign, Murong Nong and Murong Long were the most well-regarded princes. Because of this, Murong Chui's wife Empress Duan Yuanfei once suggested to him that the crown prince Murong Bao lacked abilities to govern, and Murong Chui should choose either Murong Nong or Murong Long instead. Murong Chui, believing Murong Bao to be capable, rejected her suggestion.

Murong Nong's aura of invincibility, however, began to wane in 395 -- albeit in a campaign that he was not the supreme commander of. That year, aggravated by the harassing raids by the former Later Yan vassal Northern Wei's prince , Murong Chui sent Murong Bao to command a 80,000-men army, with Murong Nong and Murong Lin as his assistant commanders, to try to crush Northern Wei. However, after stalemates with Northern Wei near Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, Murong Bao retreated after false reports of Murong Chui's death -- and was, in retreat, crushed by Tuoba Gui at the Battle of Canhe Slope, with loss of nearly the entire army. Murong Nong was, along with his brothers, able to escape death.

In early 396, Murong Chui personally led forces to try to force Northern Wei's submission, and Murong Nong and Murong Long were the forward commanders. They had initial successes against Northern Wei, but as the army passed through Canhe Slope, they mourned in such a great manner that Murong Chui, in shame and anger, grew ill, and the army was forced to retreat. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

During Murong Bao's reign

Murong Bao, although aware of Empress Duan's earlier suggestion to make Murong Nong or Murong Long crown prince , appeared to trust his brothers greatly, and he made Murong Nong the viceroy of Bing Province to guard against a Northern Wei attack. However, Murong Nong immediately made the mistakes of collecting food for his troops -- too much for the local population, then suffering from a famine, to support -- and sending military officers to watch over non- tribes. The people became resolved to revolt, and they sent messengers to Northern Wei, requesting Tuoba Gui to advance on Bing Province. In late fall 396, he arrived at the capital of the province, Jinyang , and when Murong Nong engaged Tuoba Gui in battle, Tuoba Gui defeated him, and he was forced to flee back to Zhongshan, but his wife and children were captured by Northern Wei and he himself was wounded.

Tuoba Gui continued his advance on Zhongshan. Murong Bao gave Murong Nong a small force to command in the defense of Zhongshan, but most of the military matters were entrusted to Murong Lin the Prince of Zhao, who advised Murong Bao not to engage Northern Wei forces, much to the frustration of Murong Nong and Murong Long. In spring 397, after Murong Lin failed in a coup attempt, he fled out of the capital, and Murong Bao, in fear that Murong Lin would seize a relief force commanded by his son the Prince of Qinghe, decided to abandon Zhongshan. Murong Nong's and Murong Long's subordinates tried to persuade each to stay in Zhongshan rather than to follow Murong Bao, but each refused, feeling that loyalty to their brother required them to follow him. They therefore followed Murong Bao and joined Murong Hui's army.

However, Murong Hui was resentful that he was not made crown prince, a position given to his younger brother Murong Ce , and he considered seizing the position by force. Murong Bao, realizing this, tried to transfer some of Murong Hui's army to the commands of Murong Nong and Murong Long, but this only made Murong Hui more resentful, and he acted first against his uncles, sending assassins against them. Murong Long was killed, but Murong Nong survived the attack but was severely wounded , and Murong Hui, who then openly declared a coup, was then defeated and killed.

Murong Bao, who settled in at Longcheng, made Murong Nong his prime minister. At Murong Nong's suggestion, Murong Bao iniitally stopped his thoughts of regaining the lost provinces, but in early 398, against the advice of Murong Nong and Murong Sheng the Prince of Changle, Murong Bao resolved to try to advance south -- but his army was worn out. As soon as Murong Bao left Longcheng, his general Duan Sugu started a rebellion, and the army abandoned Murong Bao, who immediately fled back to Longcheng. Meanwhile, Duan, having forced Murong Long's son Murong Chong the Prince of Gaoyang as leader, sieged Longcheng. Even with secret help from Lan Han the Prince of Dunqiu -- Murong Chui's uncle -- however, Duan was initially unsuccessful, until Murong Nong inexplicably, in fear of his life, surrendered to him. This greatly destroyed the morale of Longcheng's defense forces, as everyone relied on Murong Nong's leadership, and Longcheng fell to Duan. Duan imprisoned Murong Nong, but his strategist Ajiao Luo suggested that Murong Nong might be a better puppet than Murong Chong. Upon hearing this news, however, Murong Chong's attendants Zong Rang and Chuli Jian assassinated Ajiao and Murong Nong.

Murong Hui (Later Yan)

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Murong Hui was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan, who served under his grandfather Murong Chui and father Murong Bao . During his father's reign, angry that he was not created crown prince, he tried to seize that position by force, but after his failure was killed.

Murong Hui was born to Murong Bao and a concubine described as of lowly birth while Murong Bao was a low-level Former Qin official, after Murong Chui, a Former Yan prince, had sought refuge with Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān in 369 after a dispute with Former Yan's and regent Murong Ping, and after Former Qin had destroyed Former Yan in 370. He was therefore probably born in the Former Qin capital Chang'an, where Murong Bao served.

When Murong Chui rebelled against Former Qin in 384 and established Later Yan, Murong Hui was in Chang'an, then still under Former Qin control. After the last Former Yan emperor Murong Wei, then a Former Qin general, tried to rebel within the city around the new year 385, Fu Jiān ordered the Xianbei in the city killed, but Murong Hui, along with his uncle Murong Rou and brother Murong Sheng, were not killed, apparently because Murong Rou had been adopted by the eunuch Song Ya . Soon thereafter, though, Murong Rou, Murong Sheng, and Murong Hui fled Chang'an and sought refuge with Murong Wei's brother and the leader of the nascent Western Yan state, Murong Chong.

Western Yan eventually captured Chang'an, but Murong Chong was killed in a coup, and the Xianbei people of the state abandoned Chang'an and began heading east back to their homeland. After a series of coups in 386, Murong Yong became emperor, and under his leadership Western Yan settled in at Zhangzi . In winter 386, Murong Sheng saw that they were being suspected by Murong Yong on account of their being descendants of Murong Chui, and therefore persuaded Murong Rou and Murong Hui to flee to Later Yan. It took them a year to arrive in the Later Yan capital Zhongshan , and upon arrival in the capital, Murong Hui was created the Duke of Qinghe.

Murong Chui greatly favored Murong Hui's abilities, and whenever Murong Bao, then Murong Chui's crown prince, would accompany Murong Chui on campaigns, Murong Chui put Murong Hui in charge of the crown prince's household, and ordered that he accorded the same respect as the crown prince during those times. In 395, after Murong Bao had suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Later Yan's former vassal, Northern Wei's prince , in preparation of another attack against Northern Wei, Murong Chui recalled Murong Hui's uncle Murong Long, the viceroy at the old Former Yan capital Longcheng , to the capital with his troops, and he made Murong Hui viceroy at Longcheng. He grew extremely ill in early 396, however, and died during the campaign and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

Before Murong Chui died, he urged Murong Bao to make Murong Hui crown prince. However, Murong Bao favored his young son Murong Ce and did not consider Murong Hui. Murong Sheng, who was slightly older than Murong Hui, also did not want to see Murong Hui as crown prince, and therefore persuaded Murong Bao to create Murong Ce crown prince. Murong Hui was only promoted to Prince of Qinghe, and he resented this greatly.

Later in 396, Northern Wei launched a major attack on Later Yan, immediately seizing most of the central and western provinces of the empire, and putting Zhongshan under siege. Murong Hui mobilized his troops under guise of heading for his father's aid, but did not actually have the desire to do so, and so advanced slowly only after the urging of the general Yu Chong . As he reached Zhongshan's vicinity, his father abandoned Zhongshan and joined his army. Murong Bao immediately saw that Murong Hui was still resentful, and tried to transfer the command of the army to his own brothers Murong Long and Murong Nong, but this only angered Murong Hui more. Seeing his uncles as his threats, he sent assassins against them, killing Murong Long but only wounding Murong Nong, and then falsely accused Murong Long and Murong Nong of treason. Murong Bao initially pretended to believe him, and then tried to have him assassinated but failed. Murong Hui then rose in open rebellion, demanding the position of crown prince, and as Murong Bao had then reached Longcheng first, Murong Hui tried to put Longcheng under siege. The general , however, led a surprise attack against him, and his troops collapsed. He fled back to Zhongshan, then under the control of his cousin Murong Xiang the Duke of Kaifeng, but Murong Xiang executed him. Murong Bao executed his mother and sons as well.

Ran Min

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Ran Min , also known as Shi Min , honored by Former Yan as Daowu of Wei , courtesy name Yongzeng , nickname Jinu , was a Han Chinese military leader during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China and the only emperor of the short-lived state Ran Wei . Ran is an uncommon Chinese family name. He was noted for provoking massacres of people due to racial tension under Later Zhao.

Family background

Ran Min's father Ran Liang , who later changed his name to Ran Zhan , was ethnically and from Wei Commandery and was a descendant of an aristocratic family, but one who must have, in the serious famines circa 310, joined a group of refugees led by Chen Wu . When Later Zhao's founder Shi Le defeated Chen in 311, he captured the 11-year-old Ran Zhan as well, and for reasons unknown, he had his nephew Shi Hu adopt Ran Zhan as his son and change his name accordingly to Shi Zhan. Ran Min's mother was named Wang . It is not known when he was born, but he would have been known as Shi Min.

A Shi Zhan was mentioned to have died in battle when Shi Hu was defeated by Han Zhao's emperor Liu Yao in 328, but it is not clear whether this Shi Zhan was Shi Min's father.

During Shi Hu's reign

As Shi Min grew in age, Shi Hu became impressed at him for his bravery in battle and battlefield tactics, and he treated Shi Min as a biological grandson. The first mention in history of him as a general was in 338, when Shi Hu unsuccessfully tried to destroy the rival state Former Yan but saw his army collapse after sieging the Former Yan capital Jicheng for about 20 days but failing to capture it. The only army group that remained intact was the one commanded by Shi Min.

During the remainder of Shi Hu's reign, Shi Min was often referred to as a general he turned to. For example, in 339, when the general Yu Liang considered launching a major campaign against Later Zhao, Shi Hu chose to react, and he had his general Kui An command five generals, one of whom was Shi Min, to attack Jin's northern regions. Shi Min was successful in his task, and the five generals together inflicted heavy damages, thwarting Yu's plans. For his accomplishments, Shi Min was created the Duke of Wuxing.

During the confusion after Shi Hu's death

After Shi Hu's death in 349, his youngest son and crown prince Shi Shi became emperor, but the government was controlled by Shi Shi's mother and the official Zhang Chai . Shi Shi's older brother Shi Zun the Prince of Pengcheng was unhappy about the situation, and a number of generals who were unimpressed with Empress Dowager Liu and Zhang, including Shi Min, suggested that he march to the capital and overthrow them. Shi Zun did so -- and also promised to create Shi Min crown prince if they were victorious. In summer 349, Shi Zun defeated Shi Shi's forces and deposed and killed him, along with Empress Dowager Liu and Zhang Chai. Shi Zun claimed the imperial title. However, he did not create Shi Min crown prince as promised, but rather created another nephew, Shi Yan , crown prince. Further, while he gave Shi Min important posts, he did not allow him to have control of the government, as Shi Min wished. Shi Min became disgruntled.

In winter 349, in fear of Shi Min, Shi Zun summoned a meeting of the princes before his mother, , announcing that he would execute Shi Min. Empress Dowager Zheng opposed, reasoning that Shi Min's contributions during the coup against Shi Shi had to be remembered. Shi Zun hesitated, and meanwhile, Shi Jian, one of the princes attending the meeting, quickly reported the news to Shi Min, who acted quickly and surrounded the palace, capturing and executing Shi Zun, Empress Dowager Zheng, Shi Zun's wife , Shi Yan, and several key officials loyal to Shi Zun. He made Shi Jian emperor, but he and Li Nong became in control of the government.

Shi Jian could not endure Shi Min's hold on power, and he sent his brother Shi Bao the Prince of Leping and the generals Li Song and Zhang Cai against Shi Min, but after they were defeated, Shi Jian pretended as if they acted independently and executed them all. Another brother of his, Shi Zhi the Prince of Xinxing, then rose in the old capital Xiangguo , in alliance with the Qiang chieftain Yao Yizhong and the chieftain against Shi Min and Li Nong. Shi Jian tried to then have the general Sun Fudu , a fellow Jie, attack Shi Min, but Shi Min quickly defeated him, and Shi Jian, trying to absolve himself, then ordered Shi Min to execute Sun. Shi Min, however, began to realize that Shi Jian was behind Sun's attack, and he decided that he needed to disarm the Jie, who knew that he was not Jie but ethnically Han. He ordered that all non-Han not be allowed to carry arms, and most fled Yecheng in light of the command. Shi Min put Shi Jian under house arrest with no communication with the outside. As the non-Han continued to flee Yecheng, Shi Min saw that, in particular, the Xiongnu and the Jie would never support him, so he issued an order that if a Han killed a non-Han and presented the head, he would be rewarded. Some 200,000 died in the massacre -- including some Han who had higher nose structure or thicker beard, both considered signs of non-Hanness.

In 350, under duress from Shi Min, Shi Jian changed the name of the state from Zhao to Wei and the family name of the imperial clan from Shi to Li . Many key officials fled to Shi Zhi. Local generals throughout the empire effectively became independent, waiting for the war to resolve itself. As Shi Min was engaging his troops against Shi Zhi's, Shi Jian made one final attempt against him -- ordering the general Zhang Shen to, after Shi Min left the capital, attack it. However, Shi Jian's eunuchs reported this to Shi Min and Li Nong, and they quickly returned to Yecheng and executed Shi Jian, along with 28 grandsons of Shi Hu and the rest of the Shi clan. Shi Min, restoring his father's original family name of Ran , then took the throne as the emperor of a new state, Wei .

As emperor of Ran Wei

Ran Min honored his mother Lady Wang as empress dowager. He created his wife empress, and his oldest son Ran Zhi crown prince. His other sons were created princes, as was his ally Li Nong, whose sons were created dukes. He sent out a general pardon, hoping to have the generals who had effectively become independent powers abide by his edicts, but few accepted, even though the Han generals mostly did not outwardly defy him either. He soon, for reasons unknown, killed Li. He sent a letter to Emperor Mu of Jin's court with mixed messages -- appearing to invite Jin to send forces north and agreeing to submit, but the letter could also be read as a defiant challenge. Jin did not react, although it began to also seek allegiance of the generals in the southern provinces of Later Zhao's former territory.

Ran Min's brief reign was characterized by rash decisions and massive executions. He would often react violently to advisors who suggested ideas different from his -- including killing them -- and then regret those violent reactions after he realized that he was wrong.

In spring 351, Ran Min sieged Shi Zhi's capital Xiangguo. Shi Zhi sought aid from Former Yan's prince Murong Jun and was able to deal Ran a major defeat. At this time, the Xiongnu soldiers in Yecheng rebelled, captured his son Ran Yin, and surrendered to Shi Zhi, who executed Ran Yin. Ran Min was thought to be dead, but when he appeared in Yecheng, the city was calmed. Shi Zhi had his general Liu Xian siege Yecheng, but Ran Min defeated Liu in battle and awed him so much that Liu agreed that once he returned to Xiangguo, he would kill Shi Zhi and surrender. He did so and sent Shi Zhi's head to Ran Min, and Ran Min had Shi Zhi's head be burned on a busy street in Yecheng. Later Zhao was at its final end.

However, wars continued. Liu Xian, after briefly submitting to Ran Min, proclaimed himself emperor. The western provinces were taken over by Fu Jiàn, who established Former Qin. The southern provinces larely switched their allegiance to Jin. Meanwhile, Former Yan, which had already captured You Province and moved its capital to Jicheng , continued to advance south. Ran Min, who captured Xiangguo in early 352 and executed Liu Xian, decided to head north to face the Former Yan army, against advice of several officials who felt that his army needed a rest. The Former Yan general Murong Ke, Murong Jun's brother, pretended to lose several skirmishes and then retreat, tricking Ran Min and his infantry into the open field, and then used his cavalry to surround Ran Min's, inflicting great losses. Ran Min's horse suddenly died, and he fell off and was captured. Former Yan forces delivered him to Murong Jun, and he insulted Murong Jun. Murong Jun had him whipped 300 times and then executed, although was soon fearful that his spirit was causing a draught, and therefore honored him with the posthumous name Daowu. Ran Min's wife Empress Dong and her son Ran Zhi would hold out for several more months, but eventually surrendered later that year, ending Ran Wei's brief existence.

Ran Wei

Personal information

* Father
** Ran Zhan , later adopted by Shi Hu and name changed to Shi Zhan , likely died 327 in battle against Han Zhao, posthumously honored as Emperor Gao
* Mother
** Empress Dowager Wang
* Wife
**
* Children
** Ran Zhi , the Crown Prince , later created the Marquess of Haibin by Former Yan
** Ran Yin
** Ran Ming
** Ran Yu
** Ran Cao

Shi Jian

2008-09-09T21:46:00.001-07:00

Shi Jian was briefly an emperor of the / state Later Zhao. He was the third of four short-lived emperors after the death of his father Shi Hu . He is sometimes referred to by his title prior to becoming emperor, Prince of Yiyang . Arguably, it was his machinations with his powerful adoptive nephew Shi Min against his brother Shi Zun that finally led to Later Zhao's downfall.

Not much is known about Shi Jian prior to his father's death -- including who his mother was. He was created the Prince of Dai in 333 after his father seized power from the founding emperor Shi Le's son Shi Hong in a coup, and after Shi Hu claimed the title "Heavenly Prince" in 337, he carried the title Duke of Yiyang. He was repromoted to prince after his father claimed imperial title in early 349. In 342, he was mentioned as one of the dukes whose guard corps was reduced by his brother Shi Xuan the crown prince, whose target was however actually Shi Tao the Duke of Qin. In 345, he was mentioned as the commander of the Guanzhong region, and he imposed heavy taxes and labor burdens; further, he forced officials with long hair to pull out their hair to be made into hat decorations. After his secretary submitted the hair to Shi Hu, Shi Hu recalled him and replaced him with his brother Shi Bao the Duke of Leping.

In 349, after Shi Hu's death and succession by his youngest son, Shi Shi, the regent, Shi Shi's mother , tried to appease both Shi Jian and Shi Zun the Prince of Pengcheng by naming them to high posts. However, Shi Zun was not placated, and he attacked the capital Yecheng and seized the throne, killing Shi Shi and Empress Dowager Liu. During Shi Zun's brief administration, Shi Jian was an important member of the administration. He was one of the princes summoned to a meeting called by Shi Zun before his mother in which Shi Zun announced that he was going to execute their powerful adoptive nephew, Shi Min the Duke of Wuxing. Shi Jian, who had perhaps already been in conspiracy with Shi Min, quickly sent Shi Min the news, and Shi Min surrounded the palace with his troops, capturing and killing Shi Zun. He made Shi Jian the emperor. However, actual power were in Shi Min's and his ally Li Nong 's hands.

Shi Jian could not endure Shi Min's hold on power, and he sent his brother Shi Bao and the generals Li Song and Zhang Cai against Shi Min, but after they were defeated, Shi Jian pretended as if they acted independently and executed them all. Another brother of his, Shi Zhi the Prince of Xinxing, then rose in the old capital Xiangguo , in alliance with the Qiang chieftain Yao Yizhong and the chieftain against Shi Min and Li Nong. Shi Jian tried to then have the general Sun Fudu , a fellow Jie, attack Shi Min, but Shi Min quickly defeated him, and Shi Jian, trying to absolve himself, then ordered Shi Min to execute Sun. Shi Min, however, began to realize that Shi Jian was behind Sun's attack, and he decided that he needed to disarm the Jie, who knew that he was not Jie but ethnically . He ordered that all non-Han not be allowed to carry arms, and most fled Yecheng in light of the command. Shi Min put Shi Jian under house arrest with no communication with the outside. As the non-Han continued to flee Yecheng, Shi Min saw that, in particular, the Xiongnu and the Jie would never support him, so he issued an order that if a Han killed a non-Han and presented the head, he would be rewarded. Some 200,000 died in the massacre -- including some Han who had higher nose structure or thicker beard, both considered signs of non-Hanness.

In 350, under duress from Shi Min, Shi Jian changed the name of the state from Zhao to Wei and the family name of the imperial clan from Shi to Li . Many key officials fled to Shi Zhi. Local generals throughout the empire effectively became independent, waiting for the war to resolve itself. As Shi Min was engaging his troops against Shi Zhi's, Shi Jian made one final attempt against him -- ordering the general Zhang Shen to, after Shi Min left the capital, attack it. However, Shi Jian's eunuchs reported this to Shi Min and Li Nong, and they quickly returned to Yecheng and executed Shi Jian, along with 28 grandsons of Shi Hu and the rest of the Shi clan. Shi Min, restoring his father's original family name of Ran , then took the throne as the emperor of a new state, Wei . Effectively, Later Zhao was over, although Shi Zhi would hold out at Xiangguo until 351, when he would be killed by his general Liu Xian , finally ending Later Zhao's last hope.

Era name

* ''Qinglong'' 350

Shi Zhi

2008-09-09T21:45:00.009-07:00

Shi Zhi was briefly, for about one year, an emperor of the / state Later Zhao. He was the last of four short-lived emperors after the death of his father Shi Hu , and Later Zhao's final emperor. He is sometimes referred to by his title prior to becoming emperor, Prince of Xinxing .

Virtually nothing is known about Shi Zhi's career during his father Shi Hu's reign, including when he was created prince, who his mother was, or what role, if any, he had in his father's government. It is known that, by his father's death, he was the Prince of Xinxing. By 349, when his brother Shi Jian the emperor was effectively the puppet of their powerful, ethnically adoptive nephew Shi Min in the capital , Shi Zhi rose at his defense post at the old capital Xiangguo , in alliance with the Qiang chief Yao Yizhong and the chief . They had some initial success in getting the non-Han people of the empire to join them against Shi Min, but soon the Han coalesced around Shi Min, who changed his family name back to his father's original Ran . In early 350, Ran Min killed Shi Jian and established his own state named Wei . Shi Zhi then declared himself emperor, and he engaged in indecisive battles against Ran Min. Meanwhile, local generals throughout the empire were waiting to watch who would be the victor of the war, while neighboring states and Former Yan began to encroach on Later Zhao territory. Former Yan, in particular, seized modern Beijing, Tianjin, and northern Hebei and continued to march south.

In late 350 and early 351, Pu Hong's son Fu Jiàn seized the western part of Later Zhao, declaring himself "Heavenly Prince" and establishing Former Qin. Shi Zhi, occupied with fighting Ran Min, could do nothing. Indeed, under siege in Xiangguo by Ran, he demoted his own title from emperor to Prince of Zhao and sought help from Former Yan's prince Murong Jun against Ran, who initially agreed and allied with him to defeat Ran temporarily. Shi Zhi then sent his general Liu Xian to attack Ran in Yecheng, but Liu not only was defeated by Ran but was so awed by and fearful of him that he agreed to kill Shi Zhi for him. Once Liu returned to Xiangguo, then, he arrested and killed Shi Zhi and his high level officials, presenting Shi Zhi's head to Ran. Ran burned the head publicly on a busy street in Yecheng. Later Zhao was at its end.

Era name

* ''Yongning'' 350-351

Shi Zun

2008-09-09T21:45:00.007-07:00

Shi Zun was briefly an emperor of the / state Later Zhao. He was the second of four short-lived emperors after the death of his father Shi Hu . He is sometimes referred to by his title prior to becoming emperor, Prince of Pengcheng .

Before and during Shi Hu's reign

Shi Zun was a son of Shi Hu and his favorite, , who also bore Shi Hu his oldest son, Shi Sui . After Shi Hu seized power after the death of his uncle and Later Zhao's founding emperor Shi Le in 333, he forced the new emperor Shi Hong to create him the Prince of Wei and all of his sons princes -- and it was this time that Shi Zun was created the Prince of Qi. Shi Hu would seize the throne in 334, and after he declared himself "Heavenly Prince" in 337, he changed the ranks of all of his sons except Shi Sui to dukes, and so Shi Zun became the Duke of Pengcheng. His mother Princess Zheng was created empress, while his older brother Shi Sui was created crown prince. Later in 337, however, Shi Sui would be executed for plotting their father's death, and Empress Zheng was also demoted in rank to Duchess Dowager of Donghai.

During most of Shi Hu's reign, Shi Zun apparently served as a general. In 348, after Shi Hu executed his second crown prince, Shi Xuan for having assassinated his brother Shi Tao , he considered whom to make crown prince. The official Zhang Ju recommended two of Shi Hu's son -- Shi Zun, whom he praised for having literary abilities and virtues, and Shi Bin the Duke of Yan, whom he praised for knowing military strategies. However, based on Zhang Chai 's recommendation, Shi Hu created his youngest son Shi Shi crown prince instead.

Coup against Shi Shi

As Shi Hu grew ill in 349, he intended for Shi Zun and Shi Bin to serve as co-regents for Shi Shi, disappointing Shi Shi's mother and Zhang Chai. Empress Liu and Zhang forged edicts sending Shi Zun to Guanzhong and executing Shi Bin. After Shi Shi took the throne shortly after Shi Hu's death, Shi Zun was offered honored titles with intent to appease him, but he was not satisfied. He, by now with the title Prince of Pengcheng , allied with the generals Yao Yizhong , , Liu Ning , Shi Min the Duke of Wuxing, and Wang Luan , none of whom was particularly happy about Shi Shi's selection, marched to the capital Yecheng , capturing it easily and killing Zhang Chai. Shi Zun then forged an edict from Empress Dowager Liu deposing Shi Shi and granting himself the throne, and then executed Shi Shi and Empress Dowager Liu. He honored his mother, the former Empress Zheng, as empress dowager, while creating his wife empress. Further, he created Shi Bin's son Shi Yan crown prince, disappointing Shi Min, his adoptive nephew, whom he had promised to make crown prince.

Reign

Despite his disappointment, Shi Min subsequently led Shi Zun's forces in defeating and killing Shi Zun's brother Shi Chong the Prince of Pei, who had declared Shi Zun a renegade for having murdered the rightful heir Shi Shi. After his accomplishments in defeating Shi Shi and Shi Chong's forces, Shi Min wanted greater power in the government, but Shi Zun denied his wishes. During the next few months, Later Zhao local generals, while still outwardly obeying Shi Zun's authority, began to gradually peel away from the central government, expecting further trouble to come at the center. Also sensing that Later Zhao was crumbling, neighboring states Former Yan and planned invasions against it, although the main invasions would not come until after Shi Zun's reign.

That trouble came as Shi Zun, realizing Shi Min's anger toward him, summoned a gathering of princes before Empress Dowager Zheng, in which he announced he was going to execute Shi Min. However, Empress Dowager Zheng opposed this action, and Shi Zun hesitated. Meanwhile, one of the princes, Shi Jian the Prince of Yiyang, informed Shi Min of Shi Zun's plan, and Shi Min quickly led his troops in arresting Shi Zun. Shi Min then executed him and made Shi Jian emperor.

Personal information

* Father
** Shi Hu
* Mother
** Empress Zheng Yingtao
* Wife
**

Zhang Bin

2008-09-09T21:45:00.005-07:00

Zhang Bin , courtesy name Mengsun , formally Marquess Jing of Puyang , was a key strategist for Shi Le, the founder of the / state Later Zhao.

Biography

Zhang Bin's father Zhang Yao was a commandery governing during the early Jin Dynasty . Zhang Bin was studious in his youth, and once, comparing himself to the great strategist Zhang Liang, said, "I believe my intelligence and judgment to be no less than Zhang Liang's, but I have not met ." He served on the staff of a Jin prince, but was not trusted, and so he resigned his post.

Later, after various agrarian rebellions started against Jin rule during the late reign of Emperor Hui of Jin, Zhang happened to meet Shi, and believed that Shi was the most capable general he met, and so he joined Shi's army. Initially, Shi did not consider him important, but after they became more acquainted, Shi began to value his advice more and more. In 311, when Shi, who was then a Han Zhao general who was winning many battles but failing to hold territory, considered capturing the region between the Yangtze River and the , it was Zhang who advised him against the plan, apparently reasoning that Shi's army was suitable for mobility on the plains, not the river- and lake-filled region near the Yangtze. In 312, when Shi's army was facing a food shortage and worried about an attack from the Jin general , Shi's other main strategist Diao Ying suggested offering to declare loyalty for Jin, which Zhang told Shi would be impossible, given the great enmity that Jin forces had for Shi after his participation in capturing and pillaging Sima Yue's funeral procession and then the capital Luoyang in 311 -- and that if he tried to retreat, Jin forces would not dare to engage him. Agreeing with Zhang, Shi retreated north without being attacked by Jin forces, and he made Zhang his right secretary -- but referred to him as Right Marquess , a title that he would use to address Zhang for the rest of Zhang's life, in lieu of name, thus showing greater respect for Zhang than for other subordinates.

In summer 312, it was at Zhang's suggestion that Shi finally occupied Xiangguo and held it permanently as his headquarters. For the next few years, while he was ostensibly a Han Zhao general, with Zhang's assistance he expanded the territory he held to most of the area north of the Yellow River. By 316, Shi had created Zhang the Marquess of Puyang. In 319, after Shi declared independence from Han Zhao and its new emperor Liu Yao, thus creating Later Zhao, Zhang served as the prime minister. Zhang died in early 323, and upon his death, Shi mourned him greatly and exclaimed, "Is it that heaven does not wish me to complete great things? Why was the Right Marquess robbed from me?" After Cheng Xia , a capable administrator but not the strategist that Zhang was , succeeded Zhang, Shi often sighed, "the Right Marquess abandoned me and let me work with this man. Was it not cruel for him to do so?"

Tufa Wugu

2008-09-09T21:45:00.003-07:00

Tufa Wugu , formally Prince Wu of Wuwei , was the founding prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. He was initially a vassal of Later Liang's emperor Lü Guang, but seeing how Lü Guang was misruling his people, declared independence in 397. He ruled for only two years before he died from injuries suffered in a horse-riding accident.

Prior to independence

Tufa Wugu's father Tufa Sifujian was a great-grandnephew of the early Jin Dynasty Xianbei general Tufa Shujineng , who had been a menace to Jin forces during the reign of . Tufa Sifujian became tribal chief in 356 and was a Former Qin vassal, but it was not known when he died and was succeeded by Tufa Wugu.

Tufa Wugu himself was described as brave and ambitious, and he considered ways to take over Liang Province . His general Fen Tuo advised him that he had to be diligent, encourage agriculture, and rule efficiently and fairly. He strived to follow Fen's suggestions, and soon became known for his abilities. In 394, Lü Guang, the prince of Later Liang, sent messengers to commission Tufa Wugu as a general, and Tufa Wugu considered whether to accept it. Most of his advisors wanted to reject the commission, since they felt it humiliating to be Later Liang's vassal, but the strategist Shizhen Ruoliu pointed out that Tufa Wugu was not yet in shape to oppose Lü Guang, and that he should submit to make Lü Guang arrogant. Tufa Wugu agreed, and accepted the Later Liang posts.

In 395, Tufa Wugu attacked a number of unsubmissive tribes around his, including Yifu and Zhejue , forcing them to submit. He built Lianchuan Castle to serve as headquarters. Also in 395, Lü Guang created him the Duke of Guangwu.

In 396, when Lü Guang claimed the imperial title of "Heavenly Prince" , he tried to confer some more honorific titles on Tufa Wugu, but this time Tufa Wugu refused, stating to Lü Guang's ambassador:

:''Heavenly Prince Lü's sons are all corrupt and immoral. His nephews are particularly violent and cruel. People both near and far are angry and ready to rebel. How can I go against the people and accept these unjust titles? I am about to claim a regal title myself.''

Tufa Wugu therefore rejected the titles, although he kept the musicians and artisans that Lü Guang sent to him as part of the title bestowment.

In 397, after Lü Guang had suffered a loss on the battlefield against Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui, Tufa Wugu declared himself the Prince of Xiping and changed era name, signifying a declaration of independence for Southern Liang. He then captured Later Liang's city Jincheng , which Later Liang had only captured from Western Qin earlier that year. Lü Guang sent his general Dou Gou to attack Southern Liang, but was defeated by Tufa Wugu.

Reign

The major aim for Tufa Wugu was to weaken Later Liang and eventually capture its capital Guzang , and later in 397, when Later Liang's rebel general, the prophet Guo Nen , under attack by Lü Guang's son Lü Zuan, sought help from him, he sent his brother Tufa Lilugu to relieve Guo, although Guo later submitted to Western Qin. In 398, two other Later Liang rebel generals Yang Gui and Wang Qiji submitted to Tufa Wugu, and later that year Tufa Wugu defeated the powerful Qiang chief Liang Ji , and after his victory, the Qiang and Xiongnu tribes south of the Hongchi Mountain all submitted to him. Late in the year, he changed his title from Prince of Xiping to Prince of Wuwei, perhaps signifying his eventual design on Guzang.

In spring 399, Tufa Wugu moved his capital to Ledu . It was described that, around this time, he was very effective at judging talent, and regardless of whether his subordinates were or of other ethnicities, he put them all in the right positions in accordance with their talent. He also sought advice on whom to attack first, among Western Qin, Later Liang, or Northern Liang. Pursuant to suggestions by Yang Tong , who pointed out that Lü Guang was incompetent and that his sons were distrusting of each other, and that Tufa Wugu should let his troops harass Later Liang's borders and eventually conquer it. When Lü Guang's sons Lü Shao and Lü Zuan attacked Northern Liang later that year, Tufa Wugu went to the Northern Liang prince Duan Ye's aid, helping to stave off the Later Liang attack.

Later that year, Tufa Wugu fell off his horse while drunk, and he suffered a severe chest injury. He remarked, while grinning, "I am making Lü Guang and his sons happy!" As his conditions worsened, he ordered that someone who is old should succeed him, and so his nobles supported his brother Tufa Lilugu as the new prince .

Era name

* ''Taichu'' 397-400

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief
* Children
** Tufa Fudan
** Tufa Fanni

Li Gao

2008-09-09T21:45:00.001-07:00

Li Gao , courtesy name Xuansheng , nickname Changsheng , formally Prince Wuzhao of Liang , was the founding duke of the state Western Liáng. He was initially a Northern Liang official, but in 400, he seceded from Northern Liang's prince Duan Ye's rule and established his own independent state. His state only lasted for 21 years, but as his descendants would remain key officials and nobles throughout Northern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Zhou, and Sui Dynasty, and as one of them, , would found the Tang Dynasty in 618. After the founding of the Tang Dynasty, he was posthumously honored as Emperor Xingsheng .

Prior to Western Liang's establishment

Li Gao was born in 351, and was a posthumous child of his father Li Chang , who traced his ancestry to the Han Dynasty general Li Guang. After Li Chang's death, Li Gao's mother married a man named Song, and she bore him at least one son, Song Yao . In Li Gao's youth, he was known to be studious, rational, and open-minded. When he grew older, he also studied the military strategies of Sunzi and Wu Qi. He had, for a time, lived in the same house with his half-brother Song Yao and Guo Nen , a minister of Later Liang's founding emperor Lü Guang known for his magical and prophetic abilities. Guo once told Song, "Your place will be among the most honored of all subjects, but Mr. Li will one day found an independent state. This will happen when a mare bears a pony with a white forehead."

After Lü Guang's official Duan Ye, with support from the generals Juqu Nancheng and Juqu Mengxun, broke away from Later Liang and established Northern Liang in 397, Li Gao became a county magistrate under Duan Ye's governor of Dunhuang Commandery , Meng Min . When Meng died in 400, the officials of Dunhuang Commandery, because Li Gao was popular with the people, asked him to take over. Initially, Li Gao was hesitant, but Song advised him to accept, stating to him that a pony with a white forehead had just recently been born. Li Gao therefore accepted and requested confirmation from Duan Ye, and Duan Ye agreed.

However, Duan Ye's official Suo Si , a friend of Li Gao's, warned Duan Ye of Li Gao's ambitions and advised Duan Ye not to allow Li Gao to remain in control of Dunhuang. Duan Ye therefore sent Suo Si to take over Li Gao's post. Li Gao, in fear, initially was going to receive Suo and turn over authorities to him. At the urging of Song and Zhang Miao , however, Li Gao first sent messengers to flatter Suo, and instead made a surprise against Suo, defeating him and forcing him to flee back to the Northern Liang capital Zhangye . Li Gao, angry at what he saw as Suo's betrayal, then sent messengers to Duan Ye demanding that he execute Suo. Juqu Nancheng, who also disliked Suo, advised Duan Ye to execute Suo to pacify Li, and Duan Ye did so.

Later in 400, Li Gao's subordinate Tang Yao declared a general secession by the six commanderies around Dunhuang and offered the rulership to Li Gao. Li Gao accepted and took the title of Duke of Liang, thus establishing Western Liang.

Early reign

Li Gao set his capital at Dunhuang. In 401, the important Northern Liang city Jiuquan defected to him, and particularly in light of Later Qin's attacks on Later Liang that year, this caused Juqu Mengxun to consider surrendering his state to Later Qin, although Juqu Mengxun later decided against it and continued his state's existence. In light of Later Qin's advances, however, Li Gao nominally submitted to Later Qin as a vassal.

In 404, Li Gao's heir apparent Li Tan died, and he created Li Tan's younger brother Li Xin as the new heir apparent.

In 405, Li Gao claimed additional honorific titles, and at the same time, while not renouncing Later Qin, also sent messengers to , requesting to be a vassal. He also moved his capital from Dunhuang to Jiuquan, closer to the Northern Liang capital Zhangye, to put additional pressure on Northern Liang. He also wrote a letter to all of his sons, which is still extant, encouraging them to be open-minded and think logically, and be mild in temperament.

In 406, Li Gao entered into a peace agreement with Southern Liang's prince Tufa Rutan, with an implicit understanding of an alliance against Northern Liang, but no actual joint military action was ever taken. Later that year, Juqu Mengxun made an attack on Jiuquan, and Li Gao suffered a defeat to Juqu Mengxun near Jiuquan and was forced to return to the city to defend it against a siege, but Juqu Mengxun, not having enough strength to siege it, withdrew.

Late reign

In 408, not having received response from Jin when he sent messengers in 405, Li Gao sent another messenger with his petition to the Jin capital Jiankang .

In 410, Juqu Mengxun attacked Western Liang again and defeated Li Gao's heir apparent Li Xin in battle, capturing the general Zhu Yuanhu . Li Gao ransomed Zhu with silver and gold, and Juqu Mengxun returned Zhu and made peace with Li Gao.

In 411, Juqu Mengxun, despite the prior peace agreement, made a surprise attack on Western Liang. Li Gao guarded his capital and refused to engage Juqu Mengxun, who was then forced to withdraw when his army ran out of food supply. Li Gao then sent Li Xin to attack the Northern Liang troops in retreat, and Li Xin had a major victory over Juqu Mengxun, capturing his general Juqu Bainian .

In 416, Li Gao's subordinate Suo Chengming suggested that he attack Northern Liang. Li Gao summoned Suo and explained to him that he had insufficient strength to do so -- and that Suo, if he hactually had usable plans, should offer them rather than simply suggesting an attack. In fear and shame, Suo withdrew from his presence.

In 417, Li Gao grew ill, and he entrusted Li Xin to his brother Song Yao, stating, "After I die, the heir apparent is your son. Please discipline him accordingly." He then died, and Li Xin succeeded him as duke. Although Li Gao only claimed a ducal title, he was posthumously honored as a prince.

Era names

* ''Gengzi'' 400-405
* ''Jianchu'' 406-417

Personal information

* Father
** Li Chang , posthumously honored as Duke Jian
* Wife?/Major Concubine?
** , mother of Li Xin
* Children
** Li Tan , the Heir Apparent
** Li Xin , the Heir Apparent , later duke
** Li Rang , Marquess Mu of Xinxiang
** Li Xun , later ruler
** Li Fan
** Li Yu
** Li Hong
** Li Tiao
** Li Liang
** , wife of Juqu Mujian, prince of Northern Liang

Lu Long

2008-09-09T21:44:00.008-07:00

Lü Long , courtesy name Yongji , was the last emperor of the / state Later Liang. He was the nephew of the founding emperor Lü Guang , and he took the throne after his brother Lü Chao assassinated the emperor Lü Zuan in 401 and offered the throne to him. During his reign, Later Liang was under constant attacks by Northern Liang and Southern Liang and reduced largely to its capital Guzang . In 403, Lü Long decided to end the state by surrendering Guzang to Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing. He became a Later Qin official, but after aligning himself with Yao Xing's son Yao Bi , who made unsuccessful attempts to seize the crown prince position from Yao Hong, was executed by Yao Hong after Yao Xing's death in 416.

Early life

Not much is known about Lü Long's early life, and his birthdate is not known, and virtually nothing is known about his father Lü Bao. He was described as handsome and skilled at horsemanship and archery. Late in the reign of his uncle Lü Guang he served as a general, but he did not have the same prominence that his younger brother Lü Chao had.

In 401, Lü Chao assassinated Lü Guang's son Lü Zuan and killed Lü Zuan's brother Lü Wei the Duke of Longxi, and then offered the throne to Lü Long. Initially, Lü Long was hesitant to accept, but Lü Chao compared this to riding a dragon up to heaven and not being able to get off, and Lü Long accepted, using the title "Heavenly Prince" , roughly equivalent to emperor. He honored his mother Lady Wei as empress dowager, and created his wife as empress. He created Lü Chao the Duke of Anding and entrusted most governmental and military affairs to him.

Reign

Lü Long, however, instead of correcting Lü Zuan's rule , continued the violence by slaughtering many strong clans within his state for the purpose of showing his authority, and the people were further alienated. After hearing this, in summer 401, the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing sent his uncle Yao Shuode to launch a major attack on Later Liang. The Later Qin army quickly reached Guzang and put it under siege. Many of the non-natives in Guzang planned a rebellion to give the city to Later Qin, but were discovered, and Lü Long slaughtered them, but with Yao Shuode's pressure, Lü Chao suggested nominal submission to Later Qin, which Lü Long agreed with, sending his nephews and some 50 clans to the Later Qin capital Chang'an as hostages to guarantee his faithfulness. Per Yao Shuode's recommendation, Yao Xing created him the Duke of Jiankang, although Lü Long continued to internally use the title of Heavenly Prince. Yao Shuode then withdrew.

However, Lü Long continued to be under constant attack by both Southern Liang and Northern Liang, and just a few months after Yao Shuode's withdrawal Lü Chao suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Southern Liang general Tufa Rutan. Due to the wars, there was a severe famine, so much so that more than 100,000 people were starved. Everyday, hundreds of the residents of Guzang pled to exit the city, even knowing that they would be captured to be slaves. Lü Long was angry at these behaviors, believing that this damaged his regime's image, and therefore executed these people. Lü Long tried to make peace with both Southern Liang and Northern Liang, and in 402 had a brief peace with both, even obtaining some famine relief from Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, but the peace did not last, nor did Later Qin military assistance stop the attacks.

By 403, Lü Long was desperate. Meanwhile, Later Qin officials advised Yao Xing to take control of Later Liang territory directly, believing that if Lü Long somehow survived this crisis, he would no longer be a vassal. Yao Xing therefore summoned Lü Chao to Chang'an, intending to use his absence to force Lü Long to submit. When Lü Long received the order, he decided to end the state of siege altogether by offering his territory -- now not much more than Guzang itself -- to Later Qin. Yao Xing sent his general Qi Nan with a large force to protect and escort Lü Long to Chang'an. Lü Long welcomed him and then, after saying farewell to Lü Guang's temple, left for Chang'an. Later Qin took over the city, and Later Liang was no more.

Under Later Qin rule

Lü Long was made a Later Qin official, and he used his Later Qin-bestowed title of Duke of Jiankang. Little is known about most of the duration that he spent under Later Qin rule. However, late in Yao Xing's reign, he became involved in the plot by Yao Xing's son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping to seize the position of crown prince from his brother Yao Hong, and in 416, after a failed attempt by Yao Bi's associates to seize power in a coup, Yao Bi was forced to commit suicide, and Lü Long, along with other co-conspirators, were arrested. He was executed by Yao Hong shortly after Yao Xing then died the next day, as was his brother Lü Chao.

Era name

* ''Shending'' 401-403

Personal information

* Father
** Lü Bao , brother of Lü Guang
* Mother
**
* Wife
**

Qiao Zong

2008-09-09T21:44:00.007-07:00

Qiao Zong was a Han Chinese military leader in present-day Sichuan province in China during the Eastern . He proclaimed himself the Prince of Chengdu in 405 and was given the title "Prince of Shu" by Yao Xing, ruler of the Later Qin, in 409. His state is therefore sometimes known as Western Shu. His self-governing body coordinated offensive campaigns with Later Qin along the Yangtze River until Qiao's state was destroyed by a campaign under military subordinates of in 413.

Background and establishment of Western Shu

Qiao Zong was from Baxi Commandery . By 405, he was a mid-level military commander under the command of Mao Qu , the governor of Yi Province . In 404, the warlord Huan Xuan had usurped the Jin throne from , and Mao had, in response, mobilized his forces to ready to attack Huan Xuan, but Huan Xuan was quickly overthrown by , who restored Emperor An. However, Huan Xuan's nephew Huan Zhen occupied the important city of Jiangling and continued to resist. Mao therefore continued to advance east, ready to attack Huan Zhen. He divided his forces into two groups, one commanded by his brothers Mao Jin and Mao Yuan , and one commanded by Qiao Zong and Hou Hui .

However, the soldiers of Yi Province were not happy at this long-distance campaign, and when the forces commanded by Qiao and Hou reached Wuchengshuikou , Hou and another officer, Yang Mo , plotted a mutiny. Because Qiao Zong was considered a kind and careful man, the soldiers respected him, and therefore Hou and Yang tried to force Qiao to be their leader. Qiao refused and ran, but as the soldiers closed in on him, he tried to jump into the river to commit suicide, but he was pulled out of the water, and, with swords on his neck, forced to assume a place on a royal litter. Qiao pled against it, even prostrating himself on the ground and bowing to the soldiers, but was tied to the litter and forced to "lead" the muntineers. The mutineers then attacked and killed Mao Jin. When Mao Qu tried to respond, he was defeated and killed as well, along with Mao Yuan and their clan. Qiao Zong assumed the title Prince of Chengdu, and set his capital at Chengdu, the capital of Yi Province.

Reign

The traditional histories, such as ''Jin Shu'' and ''Zizhi Tongjian'', had little to say about Qiao Zong, but it appeared that he entrusted the important matters of the state and military to his brother Qiao Mingzi and cousins Qiao Hong and Qiao Daofu .

In 406, Liu Yu sent the generals Mao Xiuzhi , Sima Rongqi , Wen Chumao , and Shi Yanzu to attack Western Shu, but on the way, Sima Rongqi was assassinated by his subordinate Yang Chengzu , and the Jin forces had to retreat to Baidicheng. In 407, Mao Xiuzhi defeated and killed Yang, but Liu Yu sent another general, Liu Jingxuan , to attack Western Shu. Also around this time, Qiao Zong submitted as a vassal to Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing. He also secretly maintained a relationship with Jin's governor of Guang Province , Lu Xun , who was formally a Jin official but had maintained in reality an independent administration over his domain.

In 408, Qiao Zong requested Yao Xing to send Huan Xuan's cousin Huan Qian to Chengdu, so that he and Huan Qian could jointly attack Jin. Huan Qian, believing that the people of the western provinces of Jin would follow him, went to Chengdu despite Yao Xing's misgivings about Qiao Zong's intentions, and when Huan Qian arrived in Chengdu and received welcome from many, Qiao Zong became suspicious and put him under house arrest.

In late 408, Liu Jingxuan advanced to Huanghu , and Qiao Zong sought aid from Later Qin; Yao Xing sent an army to assist him, but at the same time, Qiao Daofu was able to resist Liu Jingxuan's advance, and after the armies stalemated for 60 days, Liu Jingxuan's army ran out of food supplies and grew ill, and was forced to retreat.

In 409, Yao Xing created Qiao Zong the Prince of Shu, and granted him the nine bestowments.

In fall 410, after Liu Yu had destroyed Southern Yan, Lu Xun took the opportunity to capture much of Jin territory, but then was forced to retreat when Liu Yu returned from his Southern Yan campaign. Qiao Zong then, after approval from Yao Xing, attacked Jing Province with Huan Qian and the Later Qin general Gou Lin . They were, however, defeated by Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui , and Huan Qian was killed. Qiao Zong withdrew back to his domain, but did manage to, in the process, capture Badong Commandery .

In 412, Liu Yu commissioned the general Zhu Lingshi to command an army of 20,000 men against Western Shu. He ordered Zhu to take an alternative route than the one that Liu Jingxuan had taken -- to bypass Huanghu and head for Chengdu by the circumlocutous route of Min River , but to avoid dissension and the news being leaked to Western Shu, Liu Yu also sealed his orders and publicly stated to Zhu to have them opened when he reaches Baidicheng. Zhu did so in summer 413, and the orders were as Liu Yu had previously told Zhu. Qiao Zong, not anticipating this, had Qiao Daofu defend the same route that Liu Jingxuan took -- by Fu River , with his army camped at Fucheng . Only when Zhu reached Pingmo did a Western Shu army, commanded by Hou Hui and Qiao Shen arrive to try to stop Zhu. Zhu attacked and killed Hou and Qiao Shen, and then abandoned his ships and headed directly toward Chengdu, facing little resistance on the way.

Qiao Zong, hearing that Zhu was about to arrive, abandoned Chengdu and fled toward Qiao Daofu's camp. His daughter suggested that they commit suicide on the ancestral tombs, but Qiao Zong refused. When he met Qiao Daofu, Qiao Daofu rebuked him for abandoning Chengdu, and he threw his sword at Qiao Zong. Qiao Zong fled but, believing that he could not escape, committed suicide by hanging. Qiao Daofu tried to continue to resist, but his army collapsed, and he was captured and killed by Zhu. Western Shu was at its end.

Qifu Chipan

2008-09-09T21:44:00.005-07:00

Qifu Chipan , formally Prince Wenzhao of Qin , was a prince of the /Xianbei state Western Qin. During his reign, Western Qin reached its prime after he destroyed and seized the territory of the rival state Southern Liang in 414, but it then began a gradual decline under attacks by and Northern Liang. When he died in 428, he left his state in a troubled position, and by 431, his state was destroyed, and his son Qifu Mumo captured and then killed by the Xia emperor Helian Ding.

During Qifu Gangui's first reign

It is not known when Qifu Shipan was born to his father Qifu Gangui, nor is it known for certain who his mother was. However, it appears likely that he was born prior to Western Qin's establishment by his uncle Qifu Guoren , because he was Qifu Gangui's oldest son, and it also appears likely that his mother was Qifu Gangui's wife . In 388, after Qifu Gangui died, Qifu Chipan became prince.

The first historical reference to Qifu Chipan was in 393, when Qifu Gangui created Qifu Chipan crown prince. By this point, he was already described as brave and intelligent, and more capable than his father. He quickly became a key official in his father's administration.

As Southern Liang and Later Qin subject

In 400, Qifu Gangui suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing, and most of his state was seized by Later Qin. Qifu Gangui concluded that he could not sustain a state any more, and instructed his officials to surrender to Later Qin, while he himself surrendered to Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, who welcomed him as an honored guest. Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan suspected Qifu Gangui's intentions, and suggested that Tufa Lilugu exile him to the Yifu tribe , a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected. However, worried that Qifu Gangui would try to reestablish his state, he sent an army to watch over him. Qifu Gangui, fearing that he would be executed, then regained trust from Tufa Lilugu by sending Qifu Chipan, his brothers, and their mother to the Southern Liang capital Xiping as hostages. He himself, however, as soon as the Southern Liang guard was down, fled to Fuhan and surrendered to Later Qin.

It might have been around this time that Qifu Chipan married the of Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Rutan, and later, when Qifu Chipan tried to flee to Later Qin to join his father but was captured on the way, Tufa Rutan urged for his life against Tufa Lilugu's initial desire to execute him, and Tufa Lilugu agreed with Tufa Rutan. After Tufa Lilugu died in 402 and was succeeded by Tufa Rutan, Qifu Chipan successfully escaped and fled to his father, who by then had been made a key Later Qin general. Tufa Rutan sent Qifu Chipan's wife and children to him. Qifu Gangui, who was then in control of his old capital Wanchuan , sent Qifu Chipan to the Later Qin capital Chang'an to visit the emperor Yao Xing, and Yao Xing made him a commandery governor.

In 407, concerned that Qifu Gangui was becoming stronger and more difficult to control, Yao Xing detained him while he was visiting Chang'an, and had Qifu Chipan take over his post. Later that year, when Tufa Rutan, who had nominally been a Later Qin vassal, considered renouncing that status, he sent messengers to Qifu Chipan urging him to join the rebellion. Qifu Chipan beheaded Tufa Rutan's messengers and sent their heads to Chang'an.

In 408, believing that Later Qin was growing weaker, he built a castle at Kanglang Mountain to both prepare to defend himself against Later Qin's enemies and against a potential Later Qin campaign against him. In 409, he captured Fuhan from the Later Qin rebel Peng Xi'nian and secretly sent messengers to inform Qifu Gangui of this. Qifu Gangui, who was then attending Yao Xing at Pingliang , then escaped and fled back to Wanchuan to join him. Soon, Qifu Gangui moved his home base to Dujianshan but left Qifu Chipan in command of Fuhan. Late that year, Qifu Gangui redeclared independence with the title Prince of Qin, and he created Qifu Chipan crown prince again.

During Qifu Gangui's second reign

Qifu Chipan became the person that his father relied on the most on military matters. He made the scholar Jiao Yi Qifu Chipan's teacher, and told Qifu Chipan to serve Jiao like a father, and Qifu Chipan did so.

In 411, Qifu Gangui, after some campaigns against Later Qin, agreed to nominally resubmit at a vassal, and Yao Xing created him the Prince of Henan and Qifu Chipan the Duke of Pingchang. Later that year, Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Chipan and his brother Qifu Shenqian on a campaign against Southern Liang, and they had a major victory over Tufa Rutan's crown prince Tufa Hutai , capturing more than 100,000 animals.

In spring 412, Qifu Gangui moved the capital to Tanjiao , leaving Qifu Chipan in command of Wanchuan. In summer 412, while at Tanjiao, Qifu Gangui was assassinated by Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu , who also killed more than 10 brothers of Qifu Chipan. Qifu Gongfu then took up a defense position at Daxia . Qifu Chipan sent his brothers Qifu Zhida and Qifu Muyigan to attack Qifu Gongfu, while moving the capital to Fuhan. Qifu Zhida, meanwhile, defeated Qifu Gongfu and executed him, his sons, and his brother Qifu Achai . Qifu Chipan was now the undisputed heir, and he claimed the title Prince of Henan.

Early reign

Early in his reign, Qifu Chipan continued his state's expansion at the expense of Tuyuhun, Southern Liang and Later Qin, and he further forced local tribes which were not under his father's rule into submission.

In 414, upon receiving news that Tufa Rutan was attacking rebellious Tuoqihan and Yifu tribes, leaving Tufa Hutai in command of the Southern Liang capital Ledu , Qiifu Chipan decided to make a surprise attack on Ledu. He quickly arrived at Ledu and put it under siege. Soon, Ledu fell, and he relocated Tufa Hutai and his subordinates to Fuhan, while sending his army further to face Tufa Rutan. Tufa Rutan's troops, hearing that Ledu had fallen, collapsed, and Tufa Rutan surrendered, ending Southern Liang and allowing Qifu Chipan to seize the remaining Southern Liang territory. Qifu Chipan welcomed him as an honored guest, creating him the Duke of Zuonan, and created Tufa Rutan's daughter his princess. However, in 415 he poisoned Tufa Rutan to death.

Having annexed Southern Liang into his state, in 414 Qifu Chipan claimed the greater title of Prince of Qin. He also resumed his attacks on Later Qin. However, now that there was no longer Southern Liang serving as a buffer between them, he soon got into constant warfare with Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, often at Western Qin's expense. In 416, he made peace with Juqu Mengxun. Meanwhile, in 416, with Later Qin under major attack from the general , he sent messengers to Liu Yu offering to be a vassal, and Liu Yu gave him the title Duke of Henan. By 417, Liu Yu had destroyed Later Qin, but he did not further head west to attack Western Qin, which seized a number of Later Qin cities on the borders. By 418, however, Jin had against lost the Guanzhong region to 's emperor Helian Bobo, and Xia, strengthened by its victories over Jin, now posed a major threat against Western Qin.

Late reign

In 420, Qifu Chipan created his son Qifu Mumo crown prince. That year, Qifu Chipan also received a nominal commission as a major general from Liu Yu, who had by now seized the Jin throne and established Liu Song.

In 421, the peace with Northern Liang ended, perhaps because Northern Liang had destroyed Western Liang in 420 and now could concentrate on warfare with its southern neighbor Western Qin. The battles were often inconclusive, but the war continued to wear Western Qin down.

In 423, Qifu Chipan made the declaration to his officials that he now believed that Northern Wei was the state favored by the gods, and that its emperors were capable, and so he would offer to be a Northern Wei vassal. He then sent messengers to Northern Wei, offering suggestions on how to conquer Xia. In 426, he again requested that Northern Wei attack Xia.

Later in 426, Qifu Chipan would suffer a major defeat that would debilitate his state. He was attacking Northern Liang when Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun persuaded the Xia emperor Helian Chang to attack Fuhan. Helian Chang, in response, sent his general Hulu Gu to attack Wanchuan and Wei Fa to attack Nan'an , and while Western Qin was able to hold Wanchuan, Nan'an fell, at great loss. In winter 426, Xia forces commanded by Hulu and Wei attacked Fuhan, forcing Qifu Gangui to move the capital to Dinglian , and Hulu and Wei then captured another important Western Qin city, Xiping , and while they then withdrew, Western Qin had been dealt a major blow.

In 427, Qifu Chipan moved his capital back to Fuhan, and hearing that Northern Wei had captured the Xia capital Tongwan and forced Helian Chang to flee to Shanggui , he sent his uncle Qifu Wotou to offer tributes to Northern Wei. By this point, however, Western Qin was also still under constant attack by Northern Liang and Chouchi.

In summer 428, Qifu Chipan, after telling Qifu Mumo to try to make peace with Northern Liang by returning Juqu Mengxun's advisor Juqu Chengdu , whom he had captured in 422), died, and Qifu Mumo succeeded him.

Era names

* ''Yongkang'' 412-419
* ''Jianhong'' 419-428

Personal information

* Father
** Qifu Gangui
* Wife
** Princess Tufa , daughter of Tufa Rutan, prince of Southern Liang
* Major Concubines
** Left Consort Tufa, daughter of Tufa Rutan
* Children
** Qifu Mumo , the Crown Prince , later prince
** Qifu Yuanji
** Qifu Keshuluo
** Qifu Chenglong

Tufa Lilugu

2008-09-09T21:44:00.003-07:00

Tufa Lilugu , formally Prince Kang of Hexi , was a prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. He was a younger brother of the founding prince Tufa Wugu . He was described as a capable ruler open to different opinions. He was also, somewhat contradictorily, described as having entrusted most important affairs of state to his talented brother Tufa Rutan, who was later succeed him as Prince Jing.

Before reign

The first historical reference to Tufa Lilugu was in 397, shortly after Tufa Wugu had declared independence from Later Liang and established Southern Liang. The fall of that year, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist the Later Liang rebel Guo Nen . In summer 398, he, along with another Later Liang rebel, Yang Gui , jointly battled Lü Zuan, the son of the Later Liang emperor Lü Guang, but was defeated by Lü Zuan, leading Yang Gui to eventually give up his rebellion and flee to Southern Liang. In 399, as part of Tufa Wugu's realignment of the state's defenses when moving the capital from Jincheng to Ledu , he was put in charge of Anyi . He was also described with the title Duke of Xiping at this point, although it was probably that Tufa Wugu created him with this title in 397, even though that was not mentioned. In summer 399, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist Northern Liang's prince Duan Ye when Northern Liang was under attack by Lü Zuan and Lü Guang's crown prince Lü Shao, forcing Lü Zuan and Lü Shao to withdraw. Soon thereafter, he was put in charge of the city of Xiping .

Later that year, Tufa Wugu suffered a serious horse-riding accident when drunk, and in his last words ordered that an older person be selected to succeed him. The Southern Liang nobles therefore selected Tufa Lilugu to succeed him.

Reign

After succeeding Tufa Wugu, Tufa Lilugu moved the capital from Ledu to Xiping. In early 400, Lü Zuan, who had by that point become the emperor of Later Liang, planned to attack him -- and Lü Zuan's official Yang Ying , in trying to persuade Lü Zuan not to attack, described Tufa Lilugu's regime as one "with an united heart, with subordinates who faithfully carried out his instructions, with no opportunity to take advantage of," a description, if accurate, speaks well of Tufa Lilugu. Indeed, when Lü Zuan attacked anyway notwithstanding Yang's words, Tufa Wugu sent Tufa Rutan against him and defeated him.

In summer 400, when Lü Zuan made a major attack on Northern Liang, Tufa Rutan, probably at Tufa Lilugu's instruction, made a surprise attack on the Later Liang capital Guzang , entering Guzang's eastern half and then retreating after successfully pillaging the city, forcing Lü Zuan to abandon his Northern Liang campaign.

Later that year, after Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui was defeated by Later Qin, Qifu Gangui surrendered to Tufa Lilugu. Initially, Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan suspected Qifu Gangui's sincerity and requested that Qifu Gangui be exiled to west of the Qinghai Lake -- a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected on the grounds that if he did so, no one else would surrender to him. However, when Qifu Gangui subsequently redefected to Later Qin, Tufa Lilugu much regretted the decision not to exile or kill him. Later, when Qifu Gangui's son Qifu Chipan tried to defect as well to join his father, Tufa Lilugu was prepared to execute him, but at Tufa Rutan's urging , did not do so.

In spring 401, at the urging of many of his officials, Tufa Lilugu considered declaring himself emperor. However, he accepted the advice from the general Tou Wulun that such a declaration would make him a target for others, and did not do so; rather, he only changed his title from Prince of Wuwei to Prince of Hexi, signifying a claim over the region west of the Yellow River. Later that year, he personally made a successful attack against Later Liang's emperor Lü Long .

Later in 401, there was an exchange between Tufa Lilugu and his official Shi Gao that might have demonstrated both Tufa Lilugu's strengths and weaknesses as a ruler. This was at an occasion when Tufa Lilugu ordered his officials to offer frank criticism of his rule. Shi Gao, in response, said:

:''Each time, when your majesty sent generals on military campaigns, no one could oppose them. However, they do not treat pacifying the populace as the priority, but rather concentrated on relocating them. The people like stability in life and fear unfamiliar locales. That is why many people rebel or escape. This is why we continuously kill enemy generals and capture enemy cities, but our lands do not increase.''

Tufa Lilugu agreed with Shi. However, there was no record of Tufa Lilugu changing his policies due to Shi's suggestions. Indeed, for the rest of Tufa Lilugu's reigns, there were continued references to forcible movements of people by Southern Liang troops.

Despite this, by this point, Tufa Lilugu's power appeared evident, so much so that in fall 401, the new prince of Northern Liang, Juqu Mengxun, was forced to send his son Juqu Xinian as a hostage to Tufa Lilugu to show his submission. Tufa Lilugu, however, rejected Juqu Xinian as a hostage, stating that Juqu Xinian was too young and he wanted Juqu Mengxun to send his brother Juqu Ru -- a major strategist and general for Juqu Mengxun. Juqu Mengxun initially refused -- stating that he needed Juqu Ru to assist him -- which drew anger from Tufa Lilugu, who sent Tufa Juyan the Marquess of Zhangsong and another brother, Tufa Wenzhi the Marquess of Xingcheng against Northern Liang and captured Juqu Mengxun's cousin Juqu Shanshan'gouzi . Juqu Mengxun made a humbler submission after that point and sent his uncle Juqu Kongzhe to promise to sent Juqu Ru as a hostage, before Tufa Lilugu would withdraw his troops and return the people they captured. However, Tufa Lilugu himself was aware of his own power's limitations, and he also nominally submitted to Yao Xing, the emperor of Later Qin, sending tributes to Yao Xing, and in 401, when Later Qin attacked Later Liang, he ordered his troops to withdraw to yield a path for Later Qin troops.

Around the new year 402, in response to a request for assistance from the Later Liang rebel Jiao Lang , Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to assist Jiao, and Tufa Rutan and Jiao then attacked Guzang, dealing Later Liang a major defeat. Oddly enough, however, when Northern Liang attacked Later Liang in spring 402, Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to aid Later Liang, although by the time Tufa Rutan arrived, Northern Liang had already retreated.

Later in spring 402, Tufa Lilugu grew ill, and he instructed that the state be entrusted to Tufa Rutan. After Tufa Lilugu died, Tufa Rutan succeeded him as Prince Jing.

Era name

* ''Jianhe'' 400-402

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief

Tufa Rutan

2008-09-09T21:44:00.001-07:00

Tufa Rutan , formally Prince Jing of Liang) , was the last prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. As he was the son that his father, the Xianbei chief Tufa Sifujian , considered most talented, his older brothers, the founding prince Tufa Wugu and Tufa Lilugu both decided to pass the throne to a brother, intending that he receive the throne. However, Tufa Rutan, while obviously talented as a general, is viewed by historians as being overly aggressive in waging military campaigns, and he greatly drained the resources of the Southern Liang people while doing so. Southern Liang's strength particularly waned after a major 407 defeat at the hand of the emperor , and it drew attacks from its neighbors Northern Liang and Western Qin. Eventually, Tufa Rutan was forced to surrender to Western Qin in 414 after Western Qin captured his capital Ledu , and he was poisoned to death a year later.

During the reigns of Tufa Wugu and Tufa Lilugu

After Tufa Wugu founded Southern Liang in 397 by breaking away from Later Liang, Tufa Rutan immediately began to play a major role in the military and governmental affairs of the state. In 398, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist the Later Liang rebels Yang Gui and Guo Nen . In spring 399, after Tufa Wugu moved the capital from Lianchuan to Ledu in a major realignment of his military strengths, Tufa Rutan was put in charge of the important city of Xiping , and by this time, he was referred to by the title of Duke of Guangwu, a title that Tufa Wugu himself had carried earlier. In summer 399, Tufa Wugu recalled him to Ledu to head his government, while replacing him at Xiping with Tufa Lilugu.

Later in 399, Tufa Wugu suffered a serious injury while horseriding when drunk, and, because his last words were that the state should be entrusted to someone old, was succeeded by Tufa Lilugu. Tufa Lilugu entrusted all important governmental matters to him and effectively designated him as the next prince.

In 400, when the Later Liang emperor Lü Zuan attacked Northern Liang, Tufa Rutan launched a raid at the Later Liang capital Guzang , entering the city and, while not staying permanently in the city, held a feast in the city and forced 8,000 households to relocate back to Southern Liang with him.

Later in 400, when, in light of defeats by Later Qin, the Western Qin prince Qifu Gangui surrendered to Tufa Lilugu, Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to welcome him. It might have been at this time that Tufa Rutan gave a daughter in marriage to Qifu Gangui's son Qifu Chipan, but it is not completely clear. What is clear is that later in the year, Qifu Gangui took flight again and surrendered to Later Qin, and when Qifu Chipan tried to join Qifu Gangui but was detained, it was at Tufa Rutan's suggestion that killing Qifu Chipan for wanting to join his father would appear narrow-minded that Tufa Lilugu did not execute Qifu Chipan.

It was around this time when Later Liang's general Jiang Ji surrendered to Southern Liang. Tufa Rutan, impressed by Jiang's talent, befriended him and spent much time with him, despite Tufa Lilugu's distrust of Jiang. Jiang, however, soon turned against Southern Liang and fled to Later Qin, offering its emperor Yao Xing strategies on conquering Later Liang and resisting Southern Liang.

Around the new year 402, the Later Liang rebel Jiao Lang sought aid from Southern Liang, and Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to aid him, but when Tufa Rutan arrived, Jiao would not receive him. Tufa Rutan initially was angry and wanted to attack Jiao instead, but at the suggestion of his brother Tufa Juyan reconciled with Jiao and jointly attacked Guzang and, while not capturing the city at the time, dealt the Later Liang general Lü Chao a major defeat. Later that year, however, when Later Liang was attacked by Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, Tufa Rutan came to Later Liang's aid. He soon arrested Jiao and delivered him to Tufa Lilugu as well.

Later in 402, Tufa Lilugu died from illness, and he left instructions that the throne be passed to Tufa Rutan. Tufa Rutan accepted, and moved the capital from Xiping back to Ledu.

Early reign

Tufa Rutan did not relent in his military pressure against Later Liang, and his attacks against Later Liang continued to have a destabilizing effect on Later Liang. He nominally agreed to be a Later Qin vassal, and was created the Duke of Guangwu, although he continued to internally use the title Prince of Hexi, which Tufa Lilugu used.

In summer 402, Qifu Chipan escaped and joined his father Qifu Gangui. Tufa Rutan delivered Qifu Chipan's wife and children to him.

In 403, in light of pressure from Tufa Rutan and Juqu Mengxun, Lü Long decided to end his state, surrendering Guzang to Later Qin. Tufa Rutan, apprehensive of Later Qin's power, withdrew his troops to allow Later Qin forces through to Guzang to receive Lü Long and the city. In 404, he further ended his nominal independence by ending the use of his own era name and instead using Later Qin's to show allegiance to Later Qin. He stopped using his own princely title, and used only the Later Qin-created title of Duke of Guangwu. He also made a request to Yao Xing that he be allowed to have Guzang, but Yao Xing refused.

Middle reign

While Southern Liang and Northern Liang had both become Later Qin vassals, they started sporadic but incessant warring with each other after their joint enemy, Later Liang, ceased existence. In 406, Tufa Rutan attacked Northern Liang but after Juqu Mengxun refused to engage him, withdrew, and he made a tribute of 3,000 horses and 30,000 horses to Yao Xing, greatly touching Yao Xing and making him believing in Tufa Rutan's loyalty, and so he commissioned Tufa Rutan with governorship of Liang Province , giving him Guzang. Later that year, Tufa Rutan moved his capital from Ledu to Guzang. He also entered into an alliance with Western Liáng's duke Li Gao, aimed against Northern Liang.

While Tufa Rutan was nominally a Later Qin vassal, he did not actually wish to serve Yao Xing long, and in 407 he proposed to Qifu Chipan an alliance, but Qifu Chipan executed his messengers and delivered their heads to Yao Xing. Still, at this time, Southern Liang's power was at its apex.

At this time, though, a major defeat would cause Southern Liang's strength to begin to wane. In winter 407, the Later Qin rebel Liu Bobo, who had earlier that year broken from Later Qin and established , requested to marry Tufa Rutan's daughter. Tufa Rutan refused, and in anger Liu Bobo launched a punitive raid against Southern Liang but then retreated. Tufa Rutan gave chase and, believing that he greatly outpowered Liu Bobo, was careless in his military actions. Liu Bobo led him into a canyon and then blocked the exit with ice and wagons, and then ambushed him -- and the defeat was such that it was said that 60% to 70% of Southern Liang's famed officials and generals died in the battle. Tufa Rutan barely escaped capture. In fear, Tufa Rutan ordered that all of the people within 150 kilometers of Guzang be moved into the capital, which immediately led to mass panic and a rebellion by the Xiongnu chief Cheng Qi'er . While Cheng's rebellion was defeated, Tufa Rutan's domain had been greatly wounded.

In light of Tufa Rutan's defeat, Yao Xing plotted his destruction, despite the advice of Wei Zong , an official of his who had personal knowledge of Tufa Rutan's ability, against such action. In 408, he commissioned his son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping to lead a large force with generals Lian Cheng and Qifu Gangui to make a surprise attack on Southern Liang -- tricking Tufa Rutan into initially not resisting by informing him that the army was intended to be part of a pincer movement against Xia. Only when the Later Qin forces reached Guzang's vicinity did Tufa Rutan realize what the purpose of the campaign was, and he defended the city against Yao Bi. When a rebellion inside the city itself, led by Wang Zhong , threatened to cause the city to fall, Tufa Rutan buried some 5,000 people alive, and he then defeated Yao Bi. When Yao Xing sent Yao Xian the Duke of Changshan to aid Yao Bi, Tufa Rutan defeated him as well, and Yao Xian, in fear, blamed Lian for the entire campaign and apologized to Tufa Rutan, and then withdrew with Yao Bi. Tufa Rutan also sent a messenger to Chang'an to request forgiveness.

In winter 408, Tufa Rutan again declared independence, and claimed the title of Prince of Liang, in light of Later Qin's defeats at his own hands and at the hands of Liu Bobo. He created his wife princess, and his son Tufa Hutai crown prince.

Late reign

The redeclaration of independence might have been intended to show strength, but by this point Southern Liang was in definite trouble, being in constant draining warfare with Northern Liang and Qifu Gangui's Western Qin, and historians generally view Tufa Rutan as responsible for the continued deterioration of Southern Liang's strength by continuing to initiate wars as well despite the obvious fatigue his state was suffering.

In 410, one of Tufa Rutan's campaigns would hurt him greatly. He attacked Northern Liang and forced 1,000 households to move to his state. In retaliation, Juqu Mengxun pillaged a larger number of households from his state, and when Tufa Rutan's broughter Tufa Juyan responded, Juqu Mengxun defeated him. When Tufa Rutan himself followed with a larger force, Juqu Mengxun defeated him as well, and then advanced on Guzang and put it under siege. The residents of Guzang, remembering the massacre that Tufa Rutan carried out during Wang Zhong's rebellion, panicked, and a large number surrendered to Juqu Mengxun. With his general Zhequ Qizhen also rebelling to the south, Tufa Rutan became apprehensive, and moved the capital from Guzang back to Ledu. The general Jiao Lang quickly rebelled and held Guzang, although Juqu Mengxun conquered it in 411, and then advanced on Ledu, sieging it for more than a month before Tufa Rutan submitted by sending his son Tufa Anzhou to Juqu Mengxun as a hostage.

However, Tufa Rutan soon again planned revenge, and later that year he launched another attack on Northern Liang, which was initially successful, but his army withdrew at an overly leisurely pace, and when the weather turned against him, Juqu Mengxun caught him and defeated him, again sieging Ledu, forcing him to then send his son Tufa Rangan as a hostage so that Juqu Mengxun would withdraw.

In 413, Tufa Rutan launched yet another campaign against Northern Liang, and was again defeated. Juqu Mengxun again put Ledu under siege but could not capture it. However, Tufa Rutan's general Tufa Wenzhi then rebelled, encouraging Juqu Mengxun to launch a new attack. Tufa Rutan was forced to send his brother Juqu Juyan to Northern Liang as a hostage.

In 414, the Tuoqihan and Yifu tribes rebelled, and despite the state of desperation Southern Liang was in, Tufa Rutan, leaving his crown prince Tufa Hutai in command at Ledu, launched an attack against Yifu -- which was quite successful. However, Qifu Chipan, who had by this point succeeded Qifu Gangui as Western Qin's prince, launched an attack on Ledu, sieging it. Tufa Hutai panicked, and forced the in the city into the inner citadel because he distrusted them, greatly weakening his own defense force, and Ledu fell. Tufa Hutai was captured.

Tufa Rutan's nephew Tufa Fani escaped and informed Tufa Rutan what had happened. Tufa Rutan informed his troops that his plans were then to attack the Tuoqihan tribe, and then use the proceeds from the pillaging to ransom the people of Ledu from Western Qin. However, the troops, upon hearing the news, collapsed and deserted him. Tufa Rutan was forced to surrender to Western Qin as well.

After end of Southern Liang

Qifu Chipan initially treated Tufa Rutan as an honored guest. He created Tufa Rutan the Duke of Zuonan and his princess. However, in 415, he secretly had Tufa Rutan poisoned. After he was poisoned, Tufa Rutan realized what was happening, and refused all treatment. He died soon thereafter. In 423, Tufa Rutan and Princess Tufa, who plotted to try to avenge him, were discovered and executed by Tufa Chipan as well.

Era names

* ''Hongchang'' 402-404
* ''Jiaping'' 409-414

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief
* Wife
** Princess Zhejue
* Children
** Tufa Hutai , the Crown Prince
** Tufa Anzhou
** Tufa Rangan
** Tufa Baozhou
** Tufa He , later changed name to Yuan He
** A daughter, later Princess Tufa of Western Qin
** A daughter, later Qifu Chipan's Left Consort

Yao Xing

2008-09-09T21:43:00.006-07:00

Yao Xing , courtesy name Zilue , formally Emperor Wenhuan of Qin , was an emperor of the /Qiang state Later Qin. He was the son of the founding emperor Yao Chang . For most of his reign, he did not use the title of emperor, but used the title Heavenly Prince . During his reign, he destroyed the rival Former Qin and proceeded to expand his hegemony over nearly all of western China, as he temporarily seized all of Western Qin's territory and forced Southern Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liáng, and Qiao Zong's Western Shu all to at least nominally submit to him, but late in his reign, defeats on the battlefield, particularly at the hands of the rebel general Helian Bobo , and internecine struggles between his sons and nephews greatly damaged the Later Qin state, and it was destroyed soon after his death. Yao Xing was an avid Buddhist, and it was during his reign that Buddhism first received official state support in China. The monk Kumarajiva also visited Chang'an at Yao Xing's request in 401.

Before and during Yao Chang's reign

Yao Xing was born in 366, when his father Yao Chang was a general under the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān. Not much is known about his life under Former Qin rule, other than that when he grew older, he served as an assistant to Fu Jiān's crown prince Fu Hong .

When Yao Chang declared a rebellion and established Later Qin in 384, Yao Xing was at the Former Qin capital Chang'an, and he immediately fled to his father. For the next several years, as Yao Chang fought with Former Qin and Western Yan, Yao Xing was often entrusted with guarding the base of operations , while his father engaged in campaigns. In 386, after Yao Chang declared himself emperor, he created Yao Xing crown prince. He was considered to be firm and gracious, and he spent much time studying literature despite the work necessary in maintaining home base. In 392, while Yao Chang was away on a campaign, Yao Xing, at the suggestion of the general Yao Fangcheng , executed a number of Former Qin generals whom Yao Chang had taken captive earlier. While Yao Chang was angry on the surface, he appeared to be secretly happy that Yao Xing realized the danger that these generals posed. In 393, when the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng attacked the Later Qin vassal Dou Chong , Yao Chang, at the suggestion of the prime minister Yin Wei , sent Yao Xing against Fu Deng, in order to establish Yao Xing's authority over the troops. Yao Xing was able to stop Fu Deng's attack on Dou fairly easily.

Around the new year 393, Yao Chang fell seriously ill. He told Yao Xing, on his death bed, to trust the several officials that he entrusted his administration with -- Yin, Yao Huang , Yao Damu , and Di Bozhi . When Yao Huang asked Yao Chang for strategies to defeat Fu Deng, Yao Chang refused to answer, merely stating that he trusted that Yao Xing would be able to accomplish it. He soon died, and Yao Xing succeeded him, although initially not keeping Yao Chang's death a secret and entrusting the troops to his uncles Yao Xu and Yao Shuode and his brother Yao Chóng , while preparing a campaign against Former Qin.

Early reign: establishment of Later Qin as regional power

Despite Yao Xing's hopes of keeping his father's death a secret, Fu Deng received news of it anyway -- and immediately prepared a major attack against Later Qin. Fu Deng had his brother Fu Guang defend the base of Yongcheng and Fu Chong defend the base of Hu Kong Castle , and, in his anxiety, did not make sure that his army had sufficient water supply. Yao Xing set up his army at Mawei to prevent Former Qin forces from reaching the river near Mawei, and Former Qin forces were stricken by thirst, but still fought harder. Yao Xing initially ordered Yin to be cautious, but Yin, realizing the trouble the Former Qin forces were already in and believing that morale would be destroyed if he undertook a cautious strategy, fought back fervently, and the Former Qin forces collapsed. Upon hearing the defeat, Fu Deng's brother Fu Guang and son Fu Chong abandoned the two bases that they were holding, and Fu Deng was unable to recapture them. He then sought help from the prince of Western Qin, Qifu Gangui, who sent a relief force headed by Qifu Yizhou . As Fu Deng sought to join up with Qifu Yizhou, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him. He disbanded Fu Deng's troops and gave Fu Deng's to Yao Huang. Fu Deng's crown prince Fu Chong would assume imperial title and attempt to resist Later Qin a few months longer, but later in the year died in battle against Western Qin after Qifu Gangui turned against him, ending Former Qin. Later Qin assumed nearly all of Former Qin's remaining territory. Around the new year 395, Later Qin established peace with Later Yan, thus obviating likelihood of war on the eastern border -- although later in 395, when Later Yan's crown prince Murong Bao carried out a disastrous campaign against Northern Wei's prince , Later Qin sent a relief force to aid Northern Wei, although Later Qin forces did not actually engage Later Yan. Further, in 397, with Later Yan under heavy attack by Northern Wei after its founding emperor Murong Chui died and was replaced by Murong Bao, Later Qin refused to provide aid to Later Yan.

Later in 397, Empress Dowager She died. Yao Xing was described to be in such great mourning that he was unable to handle matters of state for some time. After that had passed, however, he continued to wear mourning clothes.

Overall, during this period, Yao Xing was described by historians as diligent and willing to listen to different opinions, ruling the empire efficiently. He engaged in a number of campaigns on the various borders, enlarging Later Qin's territories and influence.

In 399, Yao Xing sent his brother Yao Chóng the Duke of Qi and the general Yang Foxong to attack the important city of Luoyang, and in winter 399 captured Luoyang and the surrounding cities.

Also in 399, Yao Xing, in response to astrological signs that were considered signs of disaster, stopped claiming the title of emperor, instead using the title "Heavenly Prince" , to show humility to the gods. He also accordingly demoted his officials and noble by one rank.

In 400, Yao Xing sent his uncle Yao Shuode the Duke of Longxi to launch a major attack against Western Qin. Despite Western Qin's initial success in cutting of Yao Shuode's supply line, Yao Xing himself led a force to aid yao Shuode, defeating Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui in battle, nearly capturing Qifu Gangui's entire army and proceeding to take most of Western Qin's cities. Qifu Gangui himself surrendered to Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, thus temporarily ending Western Qin's existence. In fall 400, believing that he was being suspected by Tufa Lilugu, Qifu Gangui fled from Southern Liang and surrendered to Later Qin. Yao Xing created him the Marquess of Guiyi and, in 401, took the unusual action of giving Qifu Gangui his army back and ordering him to defend his old capital Wanchuan , and while Qifu Gangui was in name a Later Qin general, he acted independently at times.

Later in 401, Yao Xing, under suggestion from Yao Shuode, launched a major attack against Later Liang. To avoid conflict, Tufa Lilugu ordered Southern Liang forces to yield a path for Later Qin forces, and Yao Shuode therefore easily reached the Later Liang capital Guzang , putting the city under siege. Southern Liang, Northern Liang, and Western Liang all sent messengers submitting as vassals. After two months of siege, Later Liang's emperor Lü Long also submitted as a vassal, and was given the title Duke of Jiankang, although he remained in control of Guzang and continued to use the Heavenly Prince title internally as well. Northern Liang's duke Juqu Mengxun became so apprehensive that he offered to yield his territory and relocate his entire army into Later Qin proper, but later reneged on the promise, although he remained Later Qin vassal for years.

Middle reign: entrechment and stagnation

Around the new year 402, Northern Wei attacked the Later Qin vassal Mo Yigan , and this led to the breakdown of relations between Northern Wei and Later Qin. When Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu sought marriage with Later Qin, Yao Xing, because of this and because he heard that Emperor Daowu already had as his wife, refused. In summer 402, Yao Xing personally led a major attack against Northern Wei, which had by this point taken over nearly all of Later Yan's territory north of the Yellow River. In fall 402, Yao Xing's forward commander Yao Ping the Duke of Yiyang was surrounded by Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu at Chaibi , and despite counterattacks by both Yao Ping and Yao Xing, the Northern Wei siege became increasingly tighter, and in winter 402, Yao Ping and his army were captured following a failed attempt to break out, ending Yao Xing's campaign against Northern Wei.

Also in 402, Yao Xing created his concubine empress. He also created his son Yao Hong as crown prince and other sons as dukes.

Around this time, Yao Xing also appeared to have become a devout Buddhist, under the influence of the monk Kumarajiva. This appeared to have a major influence on his actions later on -- as he appeared to avoid decisive actions that may lead to many deaths, while trying to act gently toward his enemies. This had an unfortunately deleterious effect on his empire, which, for the most part, stopped expanding. In 405, he gave Kumaraijiva an honorific title, treating him like a god, and often led his officials in listening to Kumaraijiva's sermons. At his request, Kumarajiva translated more than 300 sutras into Chinese. Yao Xing also built many towers and temples. Because of his influence, it was described that 90% of the population became Buddhists.

In 403, with his Later Liang state continuously under attack by Northern Liang and Southern Liang, Lü Long surrendered the Guzang region -- the only territory still remaining under Later Liang control -- to Later Qin, thus ending Later Liang. Yao Xing moved Lü Long and his clan to Chang'an and made him and his brother Lü Chao officials. However, because Northern Liang and Southern Liang were only nominal vassals, Guzang was effectively a lone island of Later Qin control. In 404, Southern Liang's prince Tufa Rutan stopped claiming princely title and using his own era name, in a further showing of submission to Later Qin, although internally he remained effectively independent.

In 405, at the request of the Jin general , Yao Xing returned 12 commanderies that had switched their allegiance from Jin to Later Qin during the Jin civil war from 398 to 405, despite his officials' opposition.

In 406, in response to Tufa Rutan's tribute of 3,000 horses and 30,000 sheep, Yao Xing became so touched that he yielded Guzang to Tufa Rutan, thus ending Later Qin's actual control of the Guzang region.

In 407, believing that Qifu Gangui was becoming difficult to control, when Qifu Gangui arrived in Chang'an for an official visit, he detained Qifu Gangui to be a civilian official, while giving command of Qifu Gangui's army to Qifu Gangui's heir apparent, Qifu Chipan.

Later in 407, Later Qin and Northern Wei agreed to peace -- returning previously captured generals to each other. The Later Qin general Liu Bobo , who was then in charge of Shuofang , because his father Liu Weichen had been killed by Northern Wei forces in 391, became angry and declared a rebellion, establishing . Liu Bobo used guerilla tactics against Later Qin, wearing Later Qin's armies and cities down. From this point on, Later Qin began to decline.

Late reign: gradual weakening of Later Qin

In 407, Murong Chao, the emperor of Southern Yan, whose mother and wife were then in Later Qin, requested to have them delivered to Southern Yan. Yao Xing agreed to do so if Murong Chao would agree to be a vassal and either deliver Former Qin palatial musicians or 1,000 Jin citizens to Later Qin, before his request would be agreed. Murong Chao agreed to yield as vassal, and delivered the musicians to Later Qin. Yao Xing then delivered his mother and wife to him, along with gifts.

Also in 407, Qiao Zong, who had taken control of Jin's Yi Province and declared himself the Prince of Chengdu, became a Later Qin vassal.

In 408, noticing that Southern Liang was under severe attack by its neighbors , Yao Xing launched a campaign to try to destroy Southern Liang, despite opposition by his official Wei Zong , who felt that Tufa Rutan would not be defeated easily. He commissioned his son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping along with Qifu Gangui and Lian Cheng to attack Southern Liang, while simultaneously commission Qi Nan to attack Xia. Both ventures ended badly. Yao Bi and later Yao Xian the Duke of Changshan were defeated by Tufa Rutan, and Yao Xing was forced to agree to a new peace with Southern Liang while having lost prestige based on the defeat. Even more disastrous was the Qi's mission, however, as Qi fell into a trap laid by Liu Bobo and was captured with his entire army, causing all of modern northern Shaanxi to fall into Xia hands. Later in 408, Tufa Rutan effectively repudiated his vassal status by again claiming the title Prince of Liang and changing era name.

Around this time, there also began to be increasing tendencies by Yao Xing's brothers and sons to plot to take over power. For example, in 409, his brother Yao Chōng tried to force Di Bozhi to join him in a plot to attack Chang'an, and when Di refused, poisoned Di to death, but was discovered later and forced to commit suicide.

Also in 409, Qifu Gangui escaped and returned to Wanchuan to join his son Qifu Chipan. He soon redeclared independence and reestablished Western Qin as its prince. He soon launched several campaigns against Later Qin and inflicted substantial damage, although he would apologize in 411 and again declared himself a Later Qin vassal. Later that year, however, he resumed his attacks.

Later in 409, the Jin general Liu Yu launched a major attack on Southern Yan, which sought aid from Later Qin. Initially, Yao Xing sent messengers to try to persuade Liu Yu to withdraw, and also sent a relief force commanded by Yao Qiang , but was forced to withdraw Yao Qiang's force when he suffered a major loss at Liu Bobo's hands and was nearly captured. Without aid from Later Qin, Southern Yan fell to Jin in early 410.

Later in 410, at Qiao Zong's request, Yao Xing sent an army commanded by Gou Lin to join Qiao Zong's army, commanded by Huan Qian and Qiao Daofu to attack Jin's Jing Province . However, Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui defeated both armies, killing Huan Qian and forcing Gou to flee.

As of 411, Yao Bi, who was greatly favored by Yao Xing, was deep into a conspiracy to try to undermine the crown prince Yao Hong.

In 412, Qifu Gangui was assassinated by his nephew Qifu Gongfu , the son of the founding prince Qifu Guoren. Many Later Qin officials try to persuade Yao Xing to take the opportunity, as Qifu Gongfu and Qifu Chipan battled for control of the state, to attack Western Qin. Yao Xing refused, believing it improper to attack a state that was still mourning.

Also in 412, Yao Xing created his concubine empress.

In 413, Liu Yu's general Zhu Lingshi attacked Qiao Zong's Western Shu state and destroyed it, reannexing it to Jin. Yao Xing, although Western Shu's suzerain, was unable to aid it.

In 414, Yao Bi made several attempts to be made crown prince by having officials close to him suggesting Yao Xing to replace Yao Hong with him. Yao Xing refused, but did not rebuke Yao Bi. Yao Xing grew seriously ill that year, and Yao Bi planned a coup to take over. His brother Yao Yu revealed his plot to the other brothers Yao Yi, Yao Huang, Yao Chen, and Yao Xuan, who mobilized their own forces to be ready to attack Yao Bi if necessary. Yao Xing was forced to relieve Yao Bi of his posts, and the other sons demobilized and arrived at Chang'an for an official visit. The sons accused Yao Bi of many crimes, but Yao Xing took no further action. Indeed, in 415, Yao Bi retailiated by falsely accusing Yao Xuan of crimes, and Yao Xing arrested Yao Xuan.

In summer 415, the Jin general Sima Xiuzhi , having been forced to escape after Liu Yu attacked him, fled to Later Qin. Yao Xing commissioned Sima Xiuzhi with an army to let him harass Jin borders, despite warnings by his officials of a prophecy that the Simas would regain Guanzhong and the Luoyang region.

In fall 415, Yao Xing fell ill again, and Yao Bi secretly gathered forces again to plan a coup. Yao Xing found out and arrested Yao Bi, but at Yao Hong's urging did not execute him but instead released him.

In winter 415, Yao Xing sent his daughter, the Princess Xiping, to Northern Wei to be married to Emperor Daowu's son , in order to affirm the alliance between the two states. Emperor Mingyuan welcomed her with the ceremony due an empress. However, Princess Xiping was unable to forge a golden statue, as required by Tuoba Tribe traditions to be a sign of divine favor, to become an empress, so she was only created an imperial consort, but she was treated with the honors due an empress.

In 416, Yao Xing went on a trip to Huayin , near Chang'an, and fell ill on the trip and headed back to Chang'an. His attendant Yin Chong -- one of Yao Bi's supporters -- planned to then assassinate Yao Hong as Yao Hong would come out of the city to welcome Yao Xing. Yao Hong's supporters received news of this and persuaded Yao Hong not to come out to welcome Yao Xing. Yin's assistant Yao Shami then tried to persuade Yin to take Yao Xing and join with Yao Bi to seize power, but Yin hesitated and did not do so. Once Yao Xing returned to the Chang'an palace, he transferred power to Yao Hong and ordered Yao Bi arrested. Meanwhile, Yao Xing's son Yao Geng'er , believing that Yao Xing had died, persuaded his brother Yao Yin the Duke of Nanyang to start a coup, and Yao Yin joined with Yin Chong to attack the palace, battling with Yao Hong's troops. Yao Xing, despite his illness, made an appearance and announced an edict ordering Yao Bi to commit suicide. As soon as Yao Yin's troops saw Yao Xing, they abandoned Yao Yin. That night, Yao Xing entrusted Yao Hong's administration to his brother Yao Shao the Duke of Dongping, Liang Xi , Yin Zhao , and Lian Manwei , and he died the next day. Yao Hong succeeded him, but he soon had to face even more challenges from his brothers and cousins as well as attacks by Xia and Jin, and by 417 Later Qin had fallen to Jin.

Era names

* ''Huangchu'' 394-399
* ''Hongshi'' 399-416

Personal information

* Father
** Yao Chang
* Mother
** Empress She
* Wives
**
** Empress Qi
* Children
** Yao Hong , the Crown Prince , later emperor
** Yao Yi , the Duke of Taiyuan
** Yao Bi , the Duke of Guangping
** Yao Huang , the Duke of Chenliu
** Yao Xuan , Duke
** Yao Chen , Duke
** Yao Yin , the Duke of Nanyang
** Yao Pu , the Duke of Pingyuan
** Yao Zhi , Duke
** Yao Kui , Duke
** Yao Yu , Duke
** Yao Guoer , Duke
** Yao Geng'er
** Yao Huangmei , Duke of Longxi of Northern Wei
** , concubine of Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei

Feng Ba

2008-09-09T21:43:00.005-07:00

Feng Ba , courtesy name Wenqi , nickname Qizhifa , formally Emperor Wencheng of Yan , was an emperor of the state Northern Yan. He became emperor after , whom he supported in a 407 coup that overthrew Murong Xi of Later Yan, was assassinated in 409. During his reign, Northern Yan largely maintained its territorial integrity but made no headway against the much stronger rival Northern Wei. He was said to have had more than 100 sons, but after his death in 430, his brother and successor Feng Hong had them all executed.

Family background and early life

Feng Ba's grandfather Feng He was ethnically and was said to have settled down in Shangdang Commandery in the aftermaths of the conquest of the northern half of during the reign of Emperor Huai of Jin by Han Zhao. Feng Ba's father Feng An later served the Western Yan emperor Murong Yong as a general. When Western Yan was destroyed by the Later Yan emperor Murong Chui in 394, Feng An's household was forcibly moved to Helong , where Feng Ba grew up, apparently under heavy Xianbei influence, for his nickname Qizhifa suggested Xianbei origin. He had three younger brothers, all of whom admired heroic behavior and largely ignored social restraints, but Feng Ba himself was considered to be careful and diligent, managing his household well. During Murong Bao's reign, he became a general. He came to respect Murong Bao's adoptive son the Duke of Zhaoyang, and they became great friends.

Later, in 407, during the reign of Murong Bao's cruel and capricious younger brother Murong Xi, both Feng Ba and his brother Feng Sufu somehow offended Murong Xi, and they hid themselves in the countryside. They concluded that they would eventually be found and killed anyway, and therefore resolved to overthrow Murong Xi. They reentered Longcheng, then capital, in secret, and then, when Murong Xi left Longcheng to bury his wife Empress Fu Xunying, who died earlier that year, they rose within the city with the assistance of their cousin Feng Wani and the generals Sun Hu and Zhang Xing . Because Feng Ba and Murong Yun were friends, he persuaded Murong Yun to serve as their leader, and they quickly captured the palace and closed the city gates. Murong Yun was then declared Heavenly Prince.

Murong Xi returned to Longcheng and settled in outside, at Longteng Chateau, preparing an assault on the city. At this time, the imperial guard soldier Chu Tou fled to him and informed him that the imperial guards were ready to turn against Murong Yun as soon as Murong Xi attacked. However, for reasons unknown, Murong Xi panicked at this news and fled. His general Murong Ba tried to maintain the assault against Longcheng and was initially successful, but as the troops began to realize that Murong Xi had fled, they collapsed, and Murong Ba was killed by Feng Ba's soldiers. Later that day, Murong Xi was found, wearing civilian clothes, in a forest, and he was captured and delivered to Murong Yun. Murong Yun personally read him his crimes, and then beheaded him and his sons.

During Gao Yun's reign

Because Feng Ba was instrumental in his becoming emperor, Murong Yun, who soon after he became emperor changed his name back to the original Gao Yun, made Feng Ba his prime minister, and Feng Ba's brothers and cousin Feng Wani, as well as other members of the uprising, received high posts as well. Effectively, the government was in Feng Ba's hands.

Because Gao Yun was insecure about how he felt he had little contributions to the people or to his own place on the throne, he employed many skillful guards to protect him. He further began to favor two jesters named Li Ban and Tao Ren , to have Li and Tao be in charge of security. He awarded them with great wealth, and their foods and clothes could match those of Gao Yun himself. Despite this, he was assassinated in winter 409 -- an event that is mysterious in its cause and scope. Traditional histories, including the ''Jin Shu'' and the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', record that Li and Tao, despite Gao Yun's favors to them, were still not satisfied, and they assassinated Gao Yun out of that dissatisfaction. Yet, this does not appear to be a true reason for the assassination. Gao Yun's wife Empress Li appears to have also died in the incident. Feng Ba, upon hearing of the assassination, readied his troops and waited for the situation to become clear, but two off his soldiers Zhang Tai and Li Sang advanced into the palace and beheaded Li and Tao. The officials all supported Feng Ba to take the throne, and so he did.

Reign

Feng Ba made his brother Feng Sufu the Duke of Fanyang the prime minister, and other important posts went to Sun Hu, Zhang Xing, his brother Feng Hong the Duke of Ji, his cousin Feng Wani the Duke of Guangchuan, and another cousin's son Feng Ruchen the Duke of Shanggu. He honored his mother as princess dowager, and he created his wife as princess and his son Feng Yong as crown prince. Both Feng Ba and Feng Sufu were considered diligent, frugal, and intelligent, and during this period, Northern Yan was considered well-governed, being able to fend off the much stronger rival Northern Wei.

In 410, Feng Ba had to deal with a major internal disturbance. Feng Wani and Feng Ruchen both felt that they contributed much to Feng Ba's success, and therefore were resentful that they were not at Longcheng and in control of the imperial government but were required to serve as commanding generals at the cities of Feiru and Bailang . They therefore rose in rebellion together. Feng Ba sent Feng Hong and Zhang Xing to attack them, and after they were defeated by Feng Hong and Zhang, they surrendered, but Feng Hong executed them regardless.

That year, Feng Ba buried Gao Yun and Gao Yun's wife with imperial honors, but curiously used Gao Yun's name in the edict regarding burial, without observing naming taboo.

In 411, the of Rouran, Yujiulü Hulü offered a tribute of 3,000 horses to Feng Ba and requested to marry Feng Ba's daughter Princess Lelang. Feng Ba, believing that an alliance with Rouran would be beneficial to his state, gave Princess Lelang in marriage to Yujiulü Hulü.

In 414, Feng Ba sent his official Chu Kuang to his ancestral home of Changle to find his clan members, and Chu Kuang returned with 5,000 households, headed by Feng Ba's cousins Feng Mai and Feng Du . Feng Ba also found his brother Feng Pi in Goguryeo and welcomed him back, creating him the Duke of Changshan.

Later that year, Yujiulü Hulü, who was about to in turn marry one of his daughters to Feng Ba, was overthrown by his nephew Yujiulü Buluzhen , and the coup leaders sent him and his daughter to Northern Yan. Feng Ba treated him as an honored guest and, as originally planned, took his daughter as a concubine. Yujiulü Hulü requested that Feng Ba send an army to escort him home, and Feng Ba, with some reluctance, sent his general Wan Ling to escort Yujiulü Hulü, but Wan killed Yujiulü Hulü on the way and returned. Instead, Feng Ba entered into an alliance with the new khan Yujiulü Datan, who had in turn overthrown Yujiulü Buluzhen.

Later that year, Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei sent a messenger, Huniuyu Shimen , to try to negotiate peace with Northern Yan, but when Huniuyu arrived at Helong, he refused to enter the Northern Yan palace, demanding that Feng Ba come out of his palace and accept Emperor Mingyuan's edict . Feng Ba refused and dragged Huniuyu into the palace. Huniuyu refused to bow, and Feng Ba had his guards press Huniuyu's head down, and then imprisoned him. Later, on several occasions, Huniuyu insulted Feng Ba, but Feng Ba overruled suggestions to have him executed, stating that Huniuyu was just being faithful to his state. He later tried several times to have Huniuyu submit, but Huniuyu each time refused. Feng Ba, instead, entered into an alliance with the emperor Helian Bobo.

Around the new year 415, Feng Sufu died. Contrary to the usual customs of mourning a subject at most three times, he mourned his brother seven times.

Later in 415, Sun Hu's brothers Sun Boren , Sun Chizhi , and Sun Yiba , dissatisfied with the lack of promotions, complained. Feng Ba executed the three and promoted Sun Hu to try to pacify him, but Sun Hu became depressed, so Feng Ba poisoned him to death. Meanwhile, the general Wu Yinti was also unhappy that he was not promoted and planned to offer his defense post to Goguryeo, and Feng Ba executed him.

In 416, the Northern Yan general Kuruguan Bin , who had earlier defected from Northern Yan to Northern Wei but then defected back to Northern Yan, was attacked by Northern Wei's Emperor Mingyuan, and Northern Wei forces killed not only Kuruguan Bin, but also two other Northern Yan generals, Kuruguan Chang and Kuruguan Ti , probably relatives of Kuruguan Bin.

In 418, Northern Wei's Emperor Mingyuan made a surprise attack against Northern Yan, surrounding and sieging Helong. Feng Ba defended the city against Northern Wei attack and held it. Northern Wei forces seized some 10,000 households from Northern Yan and withdrew.

During the next few years, Northern Wei concentrated its efforts against Liu Song and Xia, and there did not appear to be major confrontations again between Northern Wei and Northern Yan.

In 426, Feng Ba's crown prince Feng Yong died, and he created another son, Feng Yi , crown prince.

In 430, Feng Ba was seriously ill, and he issued an edict transferring his authorities to Feng Yi. However, Feng Ba's favorite concubine Consort Song wanted to have her son Feng Shouju inherit the throne, and therefore told Feng Yi that Feng Ba would soon recover and that he should not be so anxious to take over authority; Feng Yi agreed and retreated to his palace. Consort Song then falsely issued orders in Feng Ba's name cutting off communications with the outside, and Feng Yi and Feng Ba's other sons, as well as imperial officials, were not allowed to see Feng Ba. Only one of her trusted officials, Hu Fu , was able to enter the palace to be in charge of security. However, Hu was secretly resentful of Consort Song's ambitions, and he informed Feng Hong, who was prime minister in this point, of her intentions. Feng Hong immediately attacked the palace and seized control of it. Feng Ba, hearing up this, died in shock. Feng Hong then took the throne himself and, after defeating Feng Yi's troops, slaughtered all of Feng Ba's sons.

Era name

* ''Taiping'' 409-430

Personal information

* Father
** Feng An , Western Yan general
* Mother
**
* Wife
** Princess Sun
* Major Concubines
** Consort Song, mother of Prince Shouju
** Consort Yujiulü, daughter of Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran
* Children
** Feng Yong , the Crown Prince
** Feng Yi , the Crown Prince
** Feng Shouju
** Princess Lelang, wife of Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran

Gao Yun (Northern Yan)

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Gao Yun , at one time Murong Yun , courtesy name Ziyu , formally Emperor Huiyi of / Yan , was an emperor who, depending on the historian's characterization, was either the last emperor of the /Xianbei state Later Yan, or the first emperor of its succeeding state Northern Yan. He was ethnically and a descendant of the royal house of Goguryeo, whose ancestors were captured by Former Yan. He was adopted into the Later Yan imperial house after helping the emperor Murong Bao put down a rebellion by Murong Bao's son . He became emperor after the people rebelled against the despotic rule of his adoptive uncle Murong Xi , and during his reign, he used the title "Heavenly Prince" . In 409, he was assassinated, and after a disturbance, was replaced by his general Feng Ba .

Early life

Gao Yun's ancestors were from the Goguryeo royal house. When Murong Huang defeated Goguyreo forces and temporarily occupied its capital Wandu, he took many members of the Goguryeo royal house captive and moved them to Qingshan , and their descendants became Former Yan and Later Yan subjects. Because the first character of Goguryeo's name, in Chinese, was Gao , they largely took Gao as their family name.

As of 397, Gao Yun was a mid-level official in the administration of Murong Bao , when Murong Bao, under military pressure by Northern Wei, abandoned the capital Zhongshan and sought to take refuge at the old Former Yan capital Longcheng . On the way, his son , resentful that his younger brother Murong Ce was made crown prince over him, rebelled, and while Murong Bao was able to reach Longcheng, Murong Hui put Longcheng under siege. During one night, Gao Yun led about 100 soldiers and made a surprise attack on Murong Hui's camp, causing Murong Hui's army to collapse. Murong Hui fled to Zhongshan and was killed there. For Gao Yun's contributions, Murong Bao created him the Duke of Xiyang and adopted him as his own son, and so his name was changed to Murong Yun. It was around this time that he befriended another general, Feng Ba, as Murong Yun was not looked up favorably by others because he was a man of few words, but Feng Ba saw that he had wisdom and tolerance.

Little is known about Murong Yun's life in the next few years. By 406, he was a major general under the reign of Murong Bao's cruel and arbitrary younger brother Murong Xi , when, at the instigation of Murong Xi's wife Empress Fu Xunying, Murong Xi made a disastrous attack on Goguyreo in which many soldiers died not from battle but from exposure to the cold. Murong Yun himself suffered an arrow wound during the battle, and, because he feared Murong Xi's cruelty, used this as an excuse to resign his post and remain at home.

In summer 407, Empress Fu died. Murong Xi mourned her so much that he ordered that a magnificent tomb be built for her. The officials were all forced to weep for Empress Fu, with those who could not shed tears punished severely, so they put chili peppers in their mouths to stimulate tear production. Eventually, Murong Xi accompanied Empress Fu's funeral procession out of Longcheng.

After Murong Xi left Longcheng, Feng Ba and his brother Feng Sufu , who had hidden themselves since Murong Xi had previously wanted to have them executed, conspired with their cousin Feng Wani to start a rebellion. They did so with the help with the general Zhang Xing and those who had previously conspired with the general Fu Jin in a failed coup attempt earlier that year. Because Feng Ba was friendly with Murong Yun, he persuaded Murong Yun to become their leader, and they quickly captured the palace and closed the city gates. Murong Yun was declared the Heavenly Prince.

Murong Xi returned to Longcheng and settled in outside, at his estate of Longteng Chateau , preparing an assault on the city. At this time, the imperial guard soldier Chu Tou fled to him and informed him that the imperial guards were ready to turn against Murong Yun as soon as Murong Xi attacked. However, for reasons unknown, Murong Xi panicked at this news and fled. His general Murong Ba tried to maintain the assault against Longcheng and was initially successful, but as the troops began to realize that Murong Xi had fled, they collapsed, and Murong Ba was killed by Feng Ba's soldiers.

Later that day, Murong Xi was found, wearing civilian clothes, in a forest, and he was captured and delivered to Murong Yun. Murong Yun personally read him his crimes, and then beheaded him and his sons.

Reign

After Murong Xi's death, Murong Yun reassumed his original family name Gao. Being insecure about how he felt he had little contributions to the people or to his own place on the throne, he employed many skillful guards to protect him. He further began to favor two jesters named Li Ban and Tao Ren , to have Li and Tao be in charge of security. He awarded them with great wealth, and their foods and clothes could match those of Gao Yun himself. As far as the government was concerned, important matters were largely in the hands of Feng Ba and his brothers Feng Sufu, Feng Ruchen , and Feng Hong and cousins Feng Wani, as well as Sun Hu and Wu Yinti .

In 408, Gao Yun created his wife empress, and he created his son Gao Pengcheng crown prince. He also buried Murong Xi and Empress Fu with imperial honors. It was also around this time that , king of Goguryeo, sent messengers to him to try to establish peaceful relations as well as to ascertain the relationship between Gao Yun and the current Goguryeo royal line. Gao Yun also sent messengers to Goguryeo to affirm the relationship. He created Murong Gui the Duke of Liaodong and had Murong Gui be in charge of continuing the worship of the Murong ancestors.

In winter 409, Gao Yun was assassinated -- an event that is mysterious in its cause and scope. Traditional histories, including the ''Jin Shu'' and the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', record that Li and Tao, despite Gao Yun's favors to them, were still not satisfied, and they assassinated Gao Yun out of that dissatisfaction. Yet, this does not appear to be a true reason for the assassination. Gao Yun's wife Empress Li appears to have also died in the incident. Feng Ba, upon hearing of the assassination, readied his troops and waited for the situation to become clear, but two of his soldiers Zhang Tai and Li Sang advanced into the palace and beheaded Li and Tao. The officials all supported Feng Ba to take the throne, and so he did. Feng Ba later buried Gao Yun and Empress Li with imperial honors -- but curiously used Gao Yun's name in the edict, without deference to naming taboo.

Era name

* ''Zhengshi'' 407-409

Personal information

* Wife
**
* Children
** Gao Pengcheng , the Crown Prince

Lan Han

2008-09-09T21:43:00.001-07:00

Lan Han was an official of the /Xianbei state Later Yan, who killed the emperor Murong Bao in 398 and briefly took over the regime before being killed by Murong Bao's son Murong Sheng .

Lan Han was an uncle of Murong Bao's father Murong Chui , the founding emperor of Later Yan, as a younger brother of his mother Consort Lan , and in 384 he assisted Murong Chui's son Murong Nong in starting a rebellion against Former Qin to assist Murong Chui's main rebellion. During Murong Chui's reign he was sparsely mentioned in history. In 387 he was one of the commanders in a Later Yan campaign against . In 391 he commanded a force against a chieftain of the Xianbei Helan Tribe, Helan Ran'gan . Sometime during Murong Chui's reign, he married one of his daughters to Murong Sheng, then the Duke of Changle. As of 395 Lan Han was referred to as the Prince of Yangcheng and was defending Jicheng .

In spring 398, after a rebellion by the general Duan Sugu had Murong Bao sieged behind the walls of Longcheng , Lan Han was described as having the title of Prince of Dunqiu and commanding an army near the city, but secretly aligned with Duan. It was at his instigation that Murong Nong surrendered to Duan, causing the morale of Murong Bao's army to collapse and Longcheng to fall, forcing Murong Bao to flee. Less than a month later, however, Lan ambushed Duan and took over Longcheng and temporarily installed Murong Bao's crown prince Murong Ce as leader while sending messengers to try to welcome Murong Bao back to Longcheng. He also resumed sacrifices to Later Yan ancestral temples to show that he was still faithful to the Later Yan state. Murong Bao, based on Murong Sheng's advice, initially declined Lan's request and tried to head south to join his uncle Murong De, but upon hearing that Murong De had assumed imperial powers himself earlier in the year, returned north again under escort by Lan Han's brother Lan Jia'nan . As the procession neared Longcheng, however, Lan Jia'nan, likely under Lan Han's orders, killed Murong Bao. Lan Han then killed Murong Ce and a number of other Murong princes as well and declared himself Grand Chanyu and the Prince of Changli. He also changed era name to Qinglong , signifying that he was declaring a new state.

Murong Sheng, who had been suspicious of his father-in-law's intentions and therefore did not join his father's procession back to Longcheng, now decided to arrive at Longcheng to mourn his father, judging correctly that Lan Han would not kill him both because he was Lan's son-in-law and because he pitied Murong Sheng for the destruction of his clan. As Murong Sheng arrived at Longcheng, his wife Princess Lan further bowed not only to her father but her brothers as well, begging for Murong Sheng's life, and she was joined by Lan Han's wife Lady Yi. Lan Han therefore spared him. Murong Sheng soon managed to sow seeds of suspicion between Lan Han and his brothers Lan Jia'nan and Lan Ti . He created his son Lan Mu crown prince.

Lan Han also spared Murong Qi the Prince of Taiyuan, whose mother was also a daughter of Lan Han. Murong Sheng and Murong Qi then conspired for Murong Qi to flee out of the city and start an uprising. Murong Sheng, meanwhile, suggested to Lan Han that Lan Ti, not himself, was behind Murong Qi's rebellion. Further, at this time, because of a severe drought, Lan Han went to pray to the Later Yan ancestral temples and Murong Bao's spirit, blaming Murong Bao's murder on Lan Jia'nan. Upon hearing these things, Lan Ti and Lan Jia'nan became angry and started a rebellion of their own. Lan Mu, meanwhile, suggested that Murong Sheng be killed, and Lan Han initially agreed, but Murong Sheng, upon hearing the news through Princess Lan, declined to attend an imperial meeting that Lan Han called, and Lan Han soon changed his mind.

Soon thereafter, after Lan Mu had won a victory over Lan Ti and Lan Jia'nan, Lan Han held a feast for the soldiers, at which both he and Lan Mu became extremely drunk. Murong Sheng used this opportunity to join some army officers whom he had persuaded to join his cause, and they killed Lan Han and Lan Mu, and then Lan Ti, Lan Jia'nan, and Lan Han's other sons Lan He the Duke of Lu and Lan Yang the Duke of Chen. Murong Sheng then took the throne.

Murong Ke

2008-09-09T21:42:00.007-07:00

Murong Ke , courtesy name Xuangong , formally Prince Huan of Taiyuan , was a famed general and statesman of the /Xianbei state Former Yan. He was the son of Murong Huang , and later served as the regent for his brother Murong Jun 's son Murong Wei .

Early life

Murong Ke was Murong Huang's fourth son, by his concubine Consort Gao. In his youth, he became known for his deep-thinking and tolerance of others, but was not viewed highly by his father because his father did not favor his mother. Only after he turned 14, when his father began to be impressed by the strategies that he had, was he given important responsibilities. Sometime before 345, he was given the important defense post of Liaodong with the responsibility of defending the eastern border against Goguryeo. In 345, he was sent by Murong Huang to launch an attack on Goguyreo, and the attack was successful. In 346, formally under the command of his brother, the heir apparent Murong Jun, but with him in actual command, he attacked , capturing its capital and its king Fuyu Xuan .

In 348, Murong Huang neared death, and he told Murong Jun that he should rely on his brother Murong Ke if he wanted to accomplish great things. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Jun, who made Murong Ke one of his major generals.

During Murong Jun's reign

In 349, as rival Later Zhao was collapsing in light of internecine wars between the sons of the deceased emperor Shi Hu and his adoptive grandson Shi Min, Murong Jun, under the advice of another brother , planned an invasion into the North China Plain, and Murong Ke was one of the major generals for the planned invasion. In 350, Former Yan forces quickly captured Later Zhao's You Province . Murong Ke's military discipline was said to be so strict that not even trees and grass were harmed as his army marched through a region, and he quickly seized a number of commanderies in Ji Province from Ran Wei, the new state established by Shi Min .

In 352, Ran Min marched north, ready to engage Former Yan forces. Former Yan soldiers were apprehensive of Ran Min's reputation for being a fierce warrior, but Murong Ke devised a plan to trap Ran, whose forces were largely infantry and had been based in forests. Murong Ke pretended to repeatedly lose engagements, and Ran Wei forces were drawn into the plains. Murong Ke then put his cavalry into square formations, with horses locked in formations with chains, and the Ran Wei infantry could not stand the pressure and collapsed. Ran Min was still battling when his horse suddenly died, and he fell and was captured. Murong Jun executed him and then marched on to the Ran Wei capital Yecheng , where Ran Min's wife , his crown prince Ran Zhi, and high level officials continued to try to fend off Former Yan for a while, but late in 352, Yecheng fell, and most of Ran Wei's territory fell to Former Yan. When Murong Jun then claimed imperial title, he created Murong Ke the Prince of Taiyuan in 353.

During the next few years, as a number of former Later Zhao generals were still trying to maintain independence and vacillated between Former Yan, Former Qin, and , Murong Ke was involved in a number of successful campaigns to destroy them or force their submission. These included campaigns against Su Lin in winter 352, Li Du in summer 353, and Lü Hu in spring 354. In 356, Murong Ke further defeated Duan Kan , the Jin vassal who had occupied Shandong Peninsula under the title Duke of Qi, sieging his heavily fortified capital Guanggu and forcing his surrender. In 358, he repelled a Jin attack led by Zhuge You and further counterattacked, seizing a number of Jin commanderies south of the Yellow River.

Around new year 360, Murong Jun grew ill, and he told Murong Ke that since his 10-year-old son, Murong Wei the Crown Prince, was too young, and that the empire was facing threats from Jin and Former Qin, he was ready to pass the throne to Murong Ke. Murong Ke declined, persuading Murong Jun that if his abilities were capable of ruling over the empire, then they were also capable of assisting the young emperor. Murong Jun soon died, entrusting his son to Murong Ke, Yang Mu , his uncle Murong Ping the Prince of Shangyong, and Muyu Gen , but with Murong Ke as regent.

As regent for Murong Wei

Murong Ke soon had to face a challenge against Muyu Gen, who considered himself the senior official, having accomplished much during the reigns of Murong Huang and Murong Jun, and was unwilling to submit to the much younger Murong Ke. He first tried to create a rift by trying to persuade Murong Ke to take over the throne -- which Murong Ke rebuked him about but declined to kill him despite suggestions to do so from Murong Chui the Prince of Wu and Huangfu Zhen . Instead, Muyu then tried to persuade Murong Jun's wife and the young emperor that Murong Ke and Murong Ping were planning a rebellion. Empress Dowager Kezuhun believed him, but the emperor did not and refused to authorize action. After Murong Ke heard about this, he executed Muyu and his coconspirators. With Murong Jun recently deceased and a major purge having followed, the officials in the Former Yan regime all were terrified, but Murong Ke calmed them by calm demeanor -- including only having one servant accompany him wherever he went, without heavy guards. As far as his military command style was concerned, this was said about it in Sima Guang's ''Zizhi Tongjian'':

:''Murong Ke did not rely on terrorizing his army with punishments, but relied on kindness and faithfulness. He calmed his soldiers and paid attention to important things, and did not micromanage. Everyone felt protected by order. In ordinary times, the military laws were relaxed, and it might appear as if he lacked discipline and could be defeated easily. Instead, reality was that he paid great care to defense, and enemies could not get close. Therefore, he never lost a battle.''

Indeed, in recorded history there was not a single mention that Murong Ke lost a battle. He was also described as a capable regent, being humble and willing to listen to suggestions. He did not deal out heavy punishments for officials' mistakes, and he consulted with Murong Ping on all important decisions. In 361, a magician much favored by the young emperor, Ding Jin , tried to flatter Murong Ke by persuading him to kill Murong Ping and take all power. Murong Ke, instead, had the magician executed. Later that year, Lü Hu, whom Murong Ke had forced the surrender of years earlier, rebelled, and Murong Ke defeated him, forcing him to flee to Jin.

In 364, Murong Ke led an army against Luoyang, which had been in Jin hands since 356. In 365, after a fierce attack, Luoyang fell, and he captured the Jin general Shen Jing , whom he initially wanted to spare, but who continuously refused to submit and therefore whom his deputy Muyu Qian insisted on executing. Murong Ke, upon return to Yecheng, stated that he felt ashamed that he was unable to preserve Shen's life and allow his abilities to be used by Former Yan.

In 366, both he and Murong Ping offered to resign their posts and return all authority to the 16-year-old emperor Murong Wei. Murong Wei declined.

In 367, Murong Ke grew ill. He was afraid that a post that was part of his responsibility, the commander of the armies, would be given in an inappropriate person. He therefore tried to persuade Murong Wei's older brother Murong Zang the Prince of Le'an and Murong Ping that the post should be given to Murong Chui, whose abilities he was greatly impressed with . On his death bed, he also tried to persuade the young emperor of the same thing. However, after he died later that year, Murong Ping disagreed and took most of the power, giving the commander of the armies post to Murong Wei's younger brother Murong Chong the Prince of Zhongshan. What Murong Ke feared happened, as with Murong Ping in charge, Former Qin destroyed Former Yan in 370, just three years after his death.

Murong Ping

2008-09-09T21:42:00.005-07:00

Murong Ping was a regent of the /Xianbei state Former Yan during the reign of Murong Wei , after the death of the previous, far more capable regent Murong Ke. He, along with Murong Wei's mother , is often blamed for Former Yan's decline and fall.

Early life

Murong Ping was one of the youngest, if not the youngest, sons of the vassal, the Xianbei chief Murong Hui , the father of Former Yan's founder Murong Huang. Although historical records do not give his age, it was probably close in range to Murong Jun, Murong Huang's heir apparent. It is not known who his mother was.

The first reference to him in history was in 339, when he was mentioned as one of Murong Huang's generals who conducted a successful raid against Later Zhao's border region.

During Murong Jun's reign

In 348, Murong Huang died, and was succeeded by his son Murong Jun, who was then still using the Jin-created title Prince of Yan. In 349, Later Zhao's emperor Shi Hu died, and his state soon fell into internectine wars between his sons and his adoptive grandson Shi Min. Murong Jun therefore decided to advance south. In Murong Jun's campaigns over the next few years, which saw him seize much of Later Zhao's territory and capture Shi Min and destroy his short-lived state Ran Wei), Murong Ping served as a major general. Murong Ping led the army that sieged Ran Wei's capital Yecheng , after Ran Min's capture, in 352, against Ran Min's wife and son Ran Zhi, and the city fell to him, formally ending Ran Wei. He was put in charge of Yecheng's defenses. In 354, Murong Jun, who had by now completely broken from Jin and claimed imperial title, put him in charge of military operations in the Luoyang region and also created him the Prince of Shangyong. Over the next few years, Murong Ping would be involved in leading armies against various former Later Zhao generals who were still trying to maintain independence and vacillating between Former Yan, Former Qin, and Jin. His campaigns were of mixed successes and failures.

In 360, Murong Jun grew seriously ill, and he commissioned his capable brother Murong Ke as regent for his son Murong Wei. Murong Ping, Yang Mu , and Muyu Gen were to serve as Murong Ke's assistants. Murong Jun soon died, and Murong Wei succeeded him.

During Murong Ke's regency

Muyu Gen, a more senior official than Murong Ke or Murong Ping, was unwilling to submit to Murong Ke, and he falsely told the young emperor and his mother Murong Ke and Murong Ping were planning a rebellion. Empress Dowager Kezuhun believed Muyu, but the young emperor did not and refused to authorize his actions. Murong Ke soon found out and, after consulting with Murong Ping, executed Muyu and his clan.

Murong Ke was clearly the regent at this point, but he consulted Murong Ping on all major decisions. His regency was considered a successful one, as he governed the empire with efficiency while expanding its borders southward, at Jin's expense. Murong Ping's role in this success is unclear. In 361, the magician Ding Jin , whom Murong Wei trusted, tried to flatter Murong Ke by suggesting to him to kill Murong Ping, but Murong Ke became angry and executed Ding.

In 366, both Murong Ke and Murong Ping offered to resign their posts and return all of their authorities to Murong Wei. Murong Wei declined.

In 367, Murong Ke grew ill. He tried to persuade Murong Ping, Murong Wei, and Murong Wei's older brother Murong Zang the Prince of Le'an that one of his main responsibilities, as the commander of the armies, should be transferred to Murong Chui the Prince of Wu, his brother, as he saw Murong Chui as a capable general, but after Murong Ke died later that year, Murong Ping declined to do so, and instead gave that post to Murong Wei's younger brother Murong Chong the Prince of Zhongshan. Murong Ping himself assumed the regency and held power in conjunction with Empress Dowager Kezuhun.

Regency

Murong Ping, while apparently having military abilities, was incompetent and corrupt as a regent. In 368, when four of Former Qin's dukes rebelled against the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān, they sought help from Former Yan. Many officials, including Murong Jun's brother Murong De the Prince of Fanyang, saw this as a perfect opportunity to conquer Former Qin, but Murong Ping declined to take any actions against Former Qin, so Former Qin forces crushed the four rebel dukes.

In 368 as well, the key official Yue Wan , concerned about the growing corrupt practice by noble families of putting commoners into their fiefs -- a practice that would mean that those commoners were only responsible to them, not responsible for paying taxes to the empire, leading to the empire's treasury being so lacking that it was unable to pay its officials -- petitioned Murong Wei for a reform ending the practice. Murong Wei approved the reform and put Yue in charge of it, and Yue restored over 200,000 people to the tax-paying ranks. The nobles were all resentful of Yue, who died later in 368 -- and while most historians believed that he died of natural causes, having been already ill previously -- ''Jin Shu'' stated that he was assassinated by Murong Ping, who had much to lose from Yue' reform.

In 369, the Jin general Huan Wen launched a major attack against Former Yan, defeating every army that Murong Ping sent against him, including the most major one commanded by Murong Zang, advancing to the vicinity of Yecheng, by now Former Yan's capital. In panic, Murong Ping and Murong Wei considered fleeing to the old capital Helong . Murong Chui, whose authority had been curtailed by Murong Ping previously, offered to make one last try to resist. Meanwhile, Murong Ping also sent messengers to Former Qin, requesting assistance -- offering to cede to Former Qin the Luoyang region, which Murong Ke had captured in 365 if Former Qin would assist. Murong Chui, along with Murong De, were able to deal Huan a major defeat, and Former Qin forces soon arrived and dealt Huan another defeat. Huan would not be able to launch a major attack against Former Yan again.

However, Murong Ping and Empress Dowager Kezuhun soon engaged in two damaging decisions. Still resentful of Murong Chui , Empress Dowager Kezuhun denied him and his soldiers rewards and in fact considered killing him, a decision that Murong Ping concurred in because he was also apprehensive of Murong Chui. Murong Chui, hearing the news, fled to Former Qin and became a general for Fu Jiān. They also refused to cede the Luoyang region to Former Qin, as previously promised. In anger, late in 369, Fu Jian sent a 60,000-men force, commanded by his prime minister , against Former Yan.

In spring 370, Wang first advanced on Luoyang and forced its surrender. He then advanced on Hu Pass , defeating all Former Yan resistance on the way. He then captured Jinyang . Murong Ping led a 300,000-men strong force against Wang, but apprehensive of Wang, he stopped at Lu River . Wang soon arrived to prepare to face off against him. Meanwhile, Murong Ping made the worst display of his corruption at this time -- keeping guards at forests and streams, disallowing commoners and even his own soldiers from cutting firewood or fishing unless they paid a usage fee in either money or silk. He soon had a stash of wealth, but completely lost the morale of his soldiers. Murong Wei, hearing this, sent a messenger to rebuke him and ordering him to distribute the wealth to the soldiers, but the damage was done. In winter 370, the armies engaged, and despite the numerical advantage that Murong Ping had, Wang crushed him, and Murong Ping fled back to Yecheng by himself. Murong Wei abandoned Yecheng and tried to flee to Helong, but was captured on the way, ending Former Yan. Murong Ping fled to Goguryeo, which, however, arrested him and delivered him back to Former Qin. Fu Jiān pardoned him and made him an imperial assistant. In 372, Murong Chui told Fu Jiān that Murong Ping was the cause of Former Yan's destruction and should be killed; instead Fu Jiān effectively exiled Murong Ping by making him a governor of a remote commandery. This was the last historical record of him, and it is not known when or how he died.

Jin Zhun

2008-09-09T21:42:00.003-07:00

Jin Zhun was an official of the /Xiongnu state Han Zhao, who in 318 staged a coup against the Han Zhao emperor and his son-in-law Liu Can and then massacred the imperial Liu family. His forces were subsequently squeezed in by the succeeding emperor Liu Yao and the general Shi Le, and, facing probable defeat, his followers assassinated him. He was probably ethnically , but that is not completely clear.

During Liu Cong's reign

The first reference to Jin Zhun in history was in 315, when he was mentioned as a minor Han Zhao general, whose two beautiful daughters and were taken by the Han Zhao emperor Liu Cong as consorts. Liu Cong, who was then starting the highly unorthodox practice of creating , creating Jin Yueguang as "Upper Empress" and Jin Yuehua as "Right Empress." That same year, Upper Empress Jin was revealed by the official Chen Yuanda as having committed adultery, causing Liu Cong to feel compelled to depose her. Ashamed, she committed suicide.

It was also mentioned that of Jin Zhun married Liu Cong's son, Liu Can, but the year is unknown. As years went by, Jin Zhun became closely associated with the Liu Can and several eunuchs and servants trusted by Liu Cong and Liu Can, including Wang Chen , Xuan Huai , and Guo Yi . Jin and Guo were instrumental in persuading Liu Can that his uncle, Liu Ai the crown prince was conspiring against him and his father, and subsequently participated heavily in Liu Can's plot to have his uncle falsely accused of treason and removed as crown prince in 317. Jin also assassinated the former Crown Prince Ai, on Liu Can's orders. Liu Can became crown prince, and Princess Jin became crown princess.

Coup against Liu Can

After Liu Cong died in summer 318, Liu Can succeeded to the throne, and proceeded to spend day and night committing adultery with his father's four surviving empresses -- one of which was Jin Zhun's daughter Jin Yuehua. Jin hatched a plan to overthrow Liu Can, and managed to persuade, with the help of his two daughters that several imperial princes and high level officials were conspiring against him. With Liu Can's approval, those imperial princes and high level officials were executed. Jin Zhun became in control of government, and, after putting his cousins Jin Ming and Jin Kang in command of the armies, carried out a coup against Liu Can, capturing and executing him. He then massacred all members of the imperial Liu clan that he could capture -- regardless of gender or age. He also dug up the graves of Liu Cong and the founding emperor, , and burned the Han Zhao imperial temple.

After the coup

Jin claimed for himself the titles of supreme commander and either "" or "great prince" of Han . He acted in the role of an emperor, and he sent messengers to Emperor Yuan of Jin, claiming that he was about to revert to Jin Dynasty's rule. The Jin emperor believed him, and sent out an army to try to support him.

Before that Jin army could come close to arriving, however, Jin Zhun was caught in a trap. The major Han Zhao generals Liu Yao the Prince of Qin, who controlled the Chang'an region, and Shi Le, who controlled the eastern empire, both moved their troops against him. Shi Le, whose headquarters were closer at Xiangguo , quickly arrived near the capital Pingyang , but chose to not engage Jin Zhun immediately. In winter 318, Liu Yao, a cousin of Liu Cong, declared himself emperor, and advanced on Pingyang as well. Jin was caught between Liu Yao's and Shi's forces.

Jin sent imperial garments and wagons to Shi, seeking peace. Shi, however, sent those, along with Jin's messenger, over to Liu Yao. Liu Yao claimed that he admired Jin for carrying out the coup that allowed him to be emperor, because the government had become so corrupt late in Liu Cong's and in Liu Can's reigns, and offered not only to spare his life but to continue to allow him to be an important official. Jin, however, distrusted Liu Yao's offer, because he had killed Liu Yao's mother and brother in the massacre. However, as he hesitated, he was assassinated by Jin Kang, Qiao Tai , and Wang Teng , who then surrendered to Liu Yao, who then massacred the Jin clan.

Liu Yao

2008-09-09T21:42:00.001-07:00

Liu Yao , courtesy name Yongming , was the final emperor of the /Xiongnu state Han Zhao. He became emperor in 318 after most other members of the imperial Liu clan were massacred by Jin Zhun in a coup. However, the empire was soon divided in half, as the general Shi Le declared independence and established Later Zhao. In a decisive battle in early 329, Shi captured and executed him, and while his sons Liu Xi the Crown Prince and the Prince of Nanyang continued to hold out for nearly a year, the Han Zhao state fell later that year.

Early life

Liu Yao's father Liu Lü died early, and he was raised by Liu Lü's cousin . When he was young, Liu Yuan became impressed with his intelligence and strength. As he grew, he became known for his archery skills and his studiousness -- although his studies were described to be surveys rather than careful readings, except for books on military strategy, which he spent much of his time on. He often deprecated Wu Han and Deng Yu, instead comparing himself to the great Warring States general Le Yi, the great Han Dynasty prime minister Xiao He, and the Han general Cao Can . When people heard these remarks, they often criticized him for being overly arrogant, but Liu Yao's son Liu Cong respected him and remarked, "Yongming should be compared to Shizu and Emperor Wu of Wei ; Le, Xiao, and Cao Can cannot be compared to him."

When Liu Yao was young, he, along with his cousin Liu Cong, were studying in the capital Luoyang, when on one occasion he committed an unspecified crime punishable by death. He therefore fled to Chaoxian . Later, after a general pardon, he returned, but decided to live in the mountains away from trouble.

During Liu Yuan's reign

After Liu Yuan declared himself the Prince of Han in 304, creating Han Zhao and effectively declaring independence and war on Jin, he made Liu Yao a major general. During Liu Yuan's reign, Liu Yao engaged in many campaigns against Jin forces and often was victorious, although he, like other Han Zhao generals, had difficulty permanently holding cities that he captured. In 307, along with his cousin Liu Cong and Wang Mi , he attacked Luoyang, but was repelled. They were again foiled in 309. Liu Yao was probably created the Prince of Shi'an in 309, when Liu Yuan declared himself the emperor.

During Liu Cong's and Liu Can's reigns

After Liu Yuan's death in 310, Liu Cong overthrew his older brother and Liu Yuan's successor Liu He and succeeded to the throne himself as Emperor Zhaowu. He trusted Liu Yao greatly and commissioned him with a large force, and Liu Yao served his cousin faithfully.

In 311, Liu Yao, in conjunction with Wang, Shi Le, and Huyan Yan , captured Luoyang and Emperor Huai of Jin. He took Emperor Huai's sister-in-law, the deceased 's wife, , as his own wife.

Later that year, after Liu Cong's son Liu Can captured Chang'an, Liu Yao was put in charge of the Chang'an region, although he subsequently lost that city to Jin forces under Qu Yun , allowing the Jin prince Sima Ye to occupy that city and subsequently declare himself emperor in 313 after Liu Cong executed the former Jin emperor. In 312, while fighting Liu Kun the Jin governor of Bing Province and his ally Tuoba Yilu the Duke of in conjunction with Liu Can, Liu Yao suffered a serious injury and was almost captured or killed by Jin forces, but was able to escape after the general Fu Hu yielded his own horse and sacrificed his own life in doing so.

For the next few years, Liu Yao fought largely inconclusive battles against Jin forces, both those directly under Emperor Min and those under Sima Bao the Prince of Nanyang. However, in 316, after Emperor Min's forces collapsed and Sima Bao failed to come to his aid, Liu Yao captured Chang'an and Emperor Min . For this accomplishment, Liu Cong created him the greater title of Prince of Qin.

Late in Liu Cong's reign, Liu Cong grew increasingly cruel and extravagant, as well as increasingly trusting eunuchs and the treacherous official Jin Zhun. In 318, as Liu Cong grew ill, he summoned Liu Yao and Shi Le to be regents for his son Liu Can, but both Liu Yao and Shi declined, perhaps not wishing to contest the authorities of Jin Zhun, whose daughters had sway with Liu Cong and Liu Can as their wives. Subsequently, when Liu Cong died later that year and Liu Can succeeded to the throne, Jin Zhun became powerful and overthrew Liu Can, slaughtering all members of the imperial Liu clan in the capital Pingyang . In the massacre, Liu Yao lost his mother Lady Hu, brother, and his son and heir .

Upon hearing news of Jin Zhun's coup, Liu Yao and Shi each led their armies against Jin, catching him trapped between their forces. Meanwhile, senior Han Zhao princes and officials who escaped the Pingyang massacre offered the throne to Liu Yao, who accepted. He offered to not only spare Jin Zhun's life but continue to grant him power if Jin would surrender. However, when Jin Zhun was subsequently assassinated and succeeded by his cousin Jin Ming , who then surrendered to Liu Yao, Liu Yao massacred the Jin clan. As Pingyang was in ruins after the coup and the subsequent war, Liu Yao moved the capital to Chang'an.

Early reign

As emperor, Liu Yao showed flashes of brilliance, both at governance and military matters, at times, as well as willingness to listen to contrary opinions. However, he was also often impulsive and quick to anger, and toward the end of his reign appeared to develop alcoholism, which impaired his judgment.

His first sign of impulsiveness might have contributed to the formal division of Han Zhao into two. In 319, when Shi Le sent messengers to offer tribute to Liu Yao, Liu Yao was initially very happy, as Shi was effectively the master of the eastern half of the empire and his submission therefore showed that his throne was secure. He created Shi the Prince of Zhao and granted him a number of imperial privileges. However, when one junior member of Shi's delegation, who wished to stay in Chang'an, thereafter submitted a report that Shi was in fact plotting an attack, Liu became angry and slaughtered Shi's delegation. When Shi received the news, he became angry and was resolved to declare himself independent of Han Zhao.

Later in 319, Liu Yao created Princess Yang -- the former Jin empress -- empress, making her the only person in Chinese history to serve as empress for two emperors and two empires. He created her son Liu Xi crown prince. He also changed the name of the state from Han to Zhao.

In winter 319, Shi declared himself the Prince of Zhao, thus establishing Later Zhao and officially breaking from Han Zhao.

Liu Yao's impulsiveness led to a major and Qiang rebellion in 320. After a conspiracy involving two Di chiefs, Ju Xu and Ku Peng was discovered, Liu Yao executed not only Ju and Ku but also 50 other Di chiefs, throwing their bodies into the Wei River. When his official You Ziyuan tried to persuaded him against these actions, he threw You into jail. Aggravated, Di and Qiang tribes declared independence in a state named Qin . Subsequently, he released You and commissioned You with a force to suppression the rebellion, and You was able to persuade most of the rebels to surrender and defeat the rest.

In 322, while on a campaign against the Di chief of Chouchi, Yang Nandi, Liu Yao was stricken by a communicable disease, and while he was still able to force Yang to submit, his general Chen An , a former subordinate of Sima Bao, mistakenly thought that Liu Yao had already died, and therefore declared independence as the Prince of Liang, controlling most of Qin Province . In 323, Liu Yao, having recovered, personally attacked Chen's headquarters at Shanggui . Chen fled but was eventually captured and killed. Qin Province was once again Han Zhao domain.

After his victory over Chen, Liu Yao continued west and attacked the Jin vassal Former Liang, crushing all bases that Former Liang had east of the Yellow River. He declared that he would next cross the Yellow River and head for the Former Liang capital Guzang , but instead was intending to intimidate the Former Liang leader Zhang Mao into submission. Zhang was indeed intimidated and submitted to Han Zhao suzerainty. Liu Yao created him the Prince of Liang.

Later that year, Liu Yao's son Liu Yin, who had been a slave with the Heiniyuju tribe, because Chen had been defeated, revealed his identity to the chief, who was surprised and respectfully delivered Liu Yin back to Liu Yao. Liu Yao considered making Liu Yin his crown prince instead , but, not having the heart to depose Liu Xi, the son of Empress Yang , and particularly because Liu Yin personally declined and did not wish to replace his brother, Liu Yao left Liu Xi as crown prince and created Liu Yin the Prince of Yong'an with special honors.

Late reign

In 324, the first real battle between Later Zhao and Han Zhao occurred at Xin'an , ushering an era in which Later Zhao and Han Zhao would continuously battle for years. In 325, their armies fought a major battle near Luoyang , and after some initial Han Zhao successes, Later Zhao's general Shi Hu decisively defeated and captured Han Zhao's general Liu Yue , after Liu Yao himself encountered difficulties with his army discipline and could not come to Liu Yue's aid. Later Zhao took this opportunity to effectively take the modern central Henan, northern Jiangsu, and western Shandong under its control.

Later in 325, Liu Yao created Liu Yin the Prince of Nanyang and further bestowed on him the title of Grand Chanyu, putting Wu Hu tribal forces under his command. He also created a second empress, .

In 326, Empress Liu died, and according to her wishes, Liu Yao married her cousin as empress.

In 327, believing that Han Zhao had been weakened by its defeat at Later Zhao's hands, , Zhang Mao's nephew and successor as the head of Former Liang, declared himself again a Jin vassal and pillaged Han Zhao's Qin Province. Liu Yin led an army and defeated Former Liang's forces, even crossing the Yellow River, but eventually settling for capturing Former Liang's remaining territory east of the Yellow River.

In fall 328, Shi Hu attacked Han Zhao's Hedong Commandery . Liu Yao personally led an army and defeated Shi Hu, and then headed south and surrounded Luoyang, capturing several commanderies around it. This greatly shocked Shi Le, as he was worried that Liu Yao would next attack his capital Xiangguo . In winter 328, Shi Le personally led a relief force to Luoyang. Meanwhile, during the siege of Luoyang, Liu Yao took no precautious to cut off Chenggao Pass , and Shi was able to pass through it and arrive at Luoyang. Around the new year 329, the armies engaged in battle. Before the battle, Liu Yao, who had taken to drinking in his late reign, drank a large amount of liquor. His usual horse had suffered leg spasms, and so he had to ride a smaller horse, and during battle Shi made a surprise attack, and the horse, unable to bear his weight, fell, and he was thrown off the horse. Later Zhao soldiers inflicted many wounds on him before capturing him and taking them to the general Shi Kan . Shi Le then ordered his army to stop engagement and allow the Han Zhao forces to retreat.

Shi Kan delivered Liu Yao to Shi Le. Shi ordered that Liu's wounds be treated, and he then took Liu Yao to Xiangguo. He put Liu Yao under heavy guard but supplied him with women, and also permitted his previously captured generals Liu Yue and Liu Zhen to visit him. Shi then ordered Liu Yao to write a letter to Liu Xi and Liu Yin, ordering them to surrender. Instead, Liu Yao wrote a letter that stated: "Protect the empire with your officials. Do not care about me." Shi saw the letter and grew angry, and eventually executed Liu Yao. Late in 329, Shi Hu would capture and execute Liu Xi and Liu Yin, ending Han Zhao.

Era name

* ''Guangchu'' 318-329

Personal information

* Father
** Liu Lü , posthumously honored as Emperor Xuancheng
* Mother
** Lady Hu , posthumoustly honored as Empress Dowager Xuanming
* Wives
** Princess Bu, mother of Prince Yin, posthumously honored as Empress Yuandao
** Empress Yang Xianrong, mother of Princes Xī, Xí, and Chan
**
** Empress Liu Fang
* Major Concubines
** Consort Jin, daughter of Jin Kang the cousin of Jin Zhun
* Children
** Liu Jian , the Prince of Linhai
** , initially the Heir Apparent to Prince of Qin, later the Prince of Yong'an , later the Prince of Nanyang
** , the Crown Prince
** Liu Xí , the Prince of Changle
** Liu Chan , the Prince of Taiyuan
** Liu Chong , the Prince of Huai'nan
** Liu Chang , the Prince of Qi
** Liu Gao , the Prince of Lu
** Liu Hui , the Prince of Chu
** A daughter who later became Later Zhao emperor Shi Hu's

Liu Can

2008-09-09T21:37:00.000-07:00

Liu Can , courtesy name Shiguang , Posthumous name Emperor Yin of Han , was an emperor of the /Xiongnu state Han Zhao, who reigned briefly in 318 before being killed by his trusted father-in-law Jin Zhun.

As Prince of He'nei and then Prince of Jin

Liu Can was 's son by his first wife, , but was not created crown prince when Liu Cong became emperor in 310 after seizing the throne from his brother Liu He , because Liu Cong had promised to and did make his brother Liu Ai , the son of his father 's second wife Empress Dan, crown prince. Liu Can was, however, created the Prince of He'nei and given a substantial military command. He was one of Han Zhao's major generals early in Liu Cong's reign, along with his father's cousin Liu Yao the Prince of Shi'an, Wang Mi , and Shi Le. He appeared to be a competent general, although not as capable as Liu Yao or Shi Le, and he had mild successes in battle, although his campaigns were largely inconclusive. His mother Empress Huyan died in 312.

As the years went, Liu Cong became increasingly trusting of Liu Can, granting him more and more authority. Liu Can was considered, during his youth, to be capable in both governance and in military matters. However, after Liu Cong made him prime minister and created the Prince of Jin in 314, he was described to have become arrogant and abusive of his powers. He became close to flatterers, not willing to listen to honest advice, unkind, and busy with construction of palaces -- all traits that his father Liu Cong had displayed as well . He became very trusting of his father-in-law Jin Zhun, who was treacherous.

While it might not have taken much encouragement for Liu Can to scheme against his uncle Crown Prince Ai anyway, in 316 Jin and his associate Guo Yi falsely told Liu Can that Crown Prince Ai was planning a rebellion, along with Liu Can's brothers Liu Fu and Liu Mai . Liu Can believed them, particularly after they produced false evidence that convinced Liu Cong as well.

In spring 317, Liu Can finally readied his plan to eliminate his uncle Crown Prince Ai. He falsely informed Crown Prince Ai that Pingyang was under attack and that his subordinates should arm themselves to prepare for the attack. Then, Liu Can informed his father that Crown Prince Ai was ready to attack -- and when Liu Cong's messengers then saw Crown Prince's associates armed, they believed Liu Can's accusations and reported back to Liu Cong. Liu Can then further interrogated Crown Prince Ai's subordinate and Qiang chiefs under torture, and the Di and Qiang chiefs were forced to falsely confess to a plot. Crown Prince Ai's associates and troops were all massacred -- estimated at the cost of 15,000 men -- and Crown Prince Ai was deposed and subsequently assassinated by Jin. When Di and Qiang tribes subsequently revolted due to the treatment of their chiefs, Liu Cong sent Jin to suppress them, and Jin was successful. In fall 317, Liu Cong created Liu Can crown prince.

Reign

Liu Cong died in summer 318, and Liu Can ascended the throne. He created his wife, , empress, and his son Liu Yuangong crown prince. He became sorely reliant on his father-in-law Jin Zhun, trusting him over all others, including his brothers. He also indulged in affairs with his father's -- Jin Zhun's daughter Jin Yuehua and Empresses Fan, Xuan, and Wang, leaving all affairs of state to Jin. At Jin's suggestion, he arrested and executed his brothers Liu Ji , Liu Cheng , Liu Mai, along with key officials Liu Jing and Liu Yi . He further considered attacking the domain of the general Shi Le, who controlled the eastern empire, believing Shi to be treasonous. Meanwhile, after Liu Can killed those high level officials, the trusted Jin started a coup and killed Liu Can, and then massacred the imperial Liu clan. Liu Yao would claim the Han Zhao throne, but Han Zhao would not be what it was after Liu Can's death.

Era name

* ''Hanchang'' 318

Personal information

* Father
**
* Mother
**
* Wife
**
* Children
** Liu Yuangong , the Crown Prince

Liu Yin (Han Zhao)

2008-09-09T21:36:00.003-07:00

Liu Yin , courtesy name Yisun , was an imperial prince of the /Xiongnu state Han Zhao, who, following his father Liu Yao's capture by rival Later Zhao, tried to maintain the state with his brother, the crown prince Liu Xi, but was unsuccessful and killed by Later Zhao.

Liu Yin was Liu Yao's son by his probable first wife, Princess Bu, while he was still the Prince of Qin. He had an older brother, Liu Jian . When Liu Jian was nine and Liu Yin was four, the emperor Liu Cong saw them, and was very impressed by Liu Yin. He told Liu Yao to make Liu Yin his heir. Liu Yao responded that he was just an imperial prince and should not reverse the proper order of heirship. Liu Cong instead told him that due to his contributions to Han Zhao, he was unlike other princes, and that he should make Liu Yin, whom he felt was more talented, the heir. He therefore created Liu Jian the Prince of Linhai and created Liu Yin as the heir to Liu Yao. As Liu Yin grew up, he became strong and skillful at horsemanship and archery, and was so quick in his reaction that he was compared to a whirlwind.

When Liu Cong's successor Liu Can was overthrown by Jin Zhun in 318, Jin massacred members of the Liu clan in the capital Pingyang . Liu Yin's grandmother Lady Hu and his uncle lost their lives, but Liu Yin fled. However, he was captured by or sold to the Heiniyuju tribe as a slave. After Liu Yao defeated the renegade general Chen An in 323, Liu Yin revealed his identity to the chief, who was surprised and respectfully deliver Liu Yin back to Liu Yao. By this time, Liu Yao, who had assumed that Liu Yin was dead, had created his younger son Liu Xi crown prince. He considered replacing Liu Xi with Liu Yin, since Liu Yin was the original heir, and he considered Liu Yin general material. However, after opposition by Liu Yin's uncle Bu Tai and another official Han Guang , Liu Yin personally declined to replace Liu Xi, instead stating that he could use his abilities to assist Liu Xi. Liu Yao agreed, and he let Liu Xi remain crown prince, while granting Liu Yin special honors, including requiring Liu Xi to yield to Liu Yin as an older brother in ceremonies, rather than for Liu Yin to yield to Liu Xi as the crown prince. The relationship between the brothers appeared to remain cordial until their deaths. He also posthumously Liu Yin's mother, Princess Bu, as Empress Yuandao.

In 325, Liu Yao created Liu Yin the Prince of Nanyang and further bestowed the title of Grand Chanyu, putting Wu Hu tribal forces under his command.

In 327, believing that Han Zhao had been weakened by its defeat at Later Zhao's hands, , the head of Former Liang, which had submitted to Han Zhao's suzerainty in 323, declared himself again a Jin vassal and pillaged Han Zhao's Qin Province. Liu Yin led an army and defeated Former Liang's forces, even crossing the Yellow River, but eventually settling for capturing Former Liang's remaining territory east of the Yellow River.

Around the new year of 329, Liu Yao was captured in battle by Later Zhao forces. Liu Xi became effectively acting emperor, and after consulting with Liu Yin, he decided to withdraw from the capital Chang'an west to Shanggui , the capital of the mountainous Qin Province , considered more easily defensible. However, the withdrawal caused a panic, and all Han Zhao generals abandoned their positions and fled to Qin Province as well, easily yielding most of remaining Han Zhao territory to Later Zhao.

In fall 329, Han Zhao forces, under Liu Yin's command, tried to recapture Chang'an. Initially, he had some successes and recaptured much of the territory lost to Later Zhao. However, as he sieged Chang'an, the Later Zhao general Shi Hu arrived and defeated him. Liu Yin retreated toward Shanggui, and Shi Hu trailed him and defeated him again, capturing Shanggui. He killed Liu Xi, Liu Yin, along with all Han Zhao princes and high level officials and generals. He forcibly relocated all other officials and the large clans of Qin and Yong Provinces to the Later Zhao capital Xiangguo , and massacred, in Luoyang, the members of the Xiongnu nobility. Han Zhao came to an end.

Liu Cong (Han Zhao)

2008-09-09T21:36:00.001-07:00

Liu Cong , courtesy name Xuanmen , nickname Zai , formally Emperor Zhaowu of Han , was an emperor of the /Xiongnu state Han Zhao.

Liu Cong's reign was one filled with contradictions. He was a ruler who was obviously intelligent and capable of logical reasoning, and during his father 's reign, he was a capable general as well. On the other hand, as his reign progressed, he became increasingly cruel, unstable, extravagant, and unable to listen to proper advice. Toward the end of his reign, any official who dared to speak against his actions faced the potential of death. During his reign, both he and the Han Zhao state displayed great potential, as Han Zhao expanded from a small state occupying modern southern Shanxi to encompassing nearly all of modern Shanxi, Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, and significant portions of Shandong, Hebei, and Henan -- although the eastern half of the empire was under the control of the general Shi Le and arguably only nominally under Han Zhao's rule. Liu Cong and his state would never realize their potential.

Early career

Liu Cong was Liu Yuan's fourth son, by his concubine . When he was young, he was considered both intelligent and strong, and when he studied in the Jin capital Luoyang, his knowledge was said to have impressed the Jin officials Le Guang and Zhang Hua. Eventually, he was invited by the ambitious Sima Yong the Prince of Hejian to be on his staff, but he was concerned that since his father was on the staff of Sima Ying the Crown Prince, he would be considered to have divided loyalties. He therefore fled to Sima Ying and served as a junior officer.

After Liu Yuan declared himself the Prince of Han, thus establishing Han Zhao, in 304, he made Liu Cong one of his key generals and created him the Prince of Chu. In 309, in conjunction with Shi Le, he had a major victory over the Jin general Wang Kuang at Changping . Upon the victory, however, he prematurely tried to advance on Luoyang and was defeated by the Jin general Huan Yan , who tricked him by pretending to surrender. However, several months later, he tried again to capture Luoyang in conjunction with Wang Mi , but as he besieged the city, the Jin regent Sima Yue the Prince of Donghai was able to make surprise attacks from inside the city, and Liu Cong suffered several repeated attacks. Liu Yuan then recalled him back to the capital Pingyang .

In summer 310, Liu Yuan grew ill. He created Liu Cong's older brother Liu He crown prince, and commissioned his other sons Liu Yu the Prince of Qi, Liu Long the Prince of Lu, and Liu Ai the Prince of Beihai with substantial troops at the capital, in addition to the large army that Liu Cong already had, with intent that they assist Liu He with governance and military matters. A group of officials, both Xiongnu and , were given various responsibilities in assisting Liu He. However, three officials were left out -- Liu He's uncle Huyan You , Liu Cheng -- who had prior grudges with Liu Cong -- and Liu Rui the Prince of Xichang. They were disgruntled, and they persuaded the already suspicious Liu He that he could not be safe if his brothers maintained large forces in or near the capital. Three days after Liu Yuan's death, under Liu He's orders, these officials commenced surprise attacks on Liu He's four brothers -- Liu Rui against Liu Chong, Huyan You against Liu Yu, Liu Cheng against Liu Long, and Tian Mi and Liu Gui against Liu Ai. Once Tian and Liu Gui got on the way, however, they did not attack Liu Ai but instead escorted him to alert Liu Cong, who then prepared for the confrontation. Liu Rui withdrew his troops. Over the next two days, Liu Yu and Liu Long were defeated and killed. Two days later, Liu Cong sieged the palace and killed Liu He, Liu Cheng, Liu Rui, and Huyan. After initially offering the throne to Liu Ai, Liu Cong then assumed the throne himself.

Early reign

After Liu Cong took the throne, he created his brother Liu Ai crown prince, promising to eventually give Liu Ai the throne that he offered to Liu Cong instead. He created his wife empress, and created her son Liu Can the Prince of Jin, putting him in charge of much of his troops, along with his cousin Liu Yao the Prince of Shi'an. Both Liu Yuan's empress Empress Dan and Liu Cong's own mother Consort Zhang were honored as .

Later in 310, Crown Prince Ai's mother, Empress Dan died -- said to be of shame after her affair with Liu Cong was discovered by her son Liu Ai. After she died, Liu Cong's favor for his brother quickly waned, although he was said to be keeping him as crown prince still because of his love for her. Empress Huyan, however, began to try to persuade him to create Liu Can crown prince instead, and he began to consider the matter.

Liu Cong continued to put up pressure against Jin and its capital Luoyang. His generals Liu Yao, Liu Can, Shi Le, and Wang Mi continued to defeat Jin forces that they encountered easily, capturing cities and killing Jin officials, but continued to have difficulty holding cities permanently. However, they rendered the Jin heartland stripped and barren. In spring 311, Shi Le crushed the remaining major Jin force in the central China region, previously commanded by Sima Yue, which was trying to head east after his death. Shi had the Jin officials and generals he captured all executed and burned Sima Yue's body. Luoyang was left defenseless, and at Liu Cong's orders, summer that year, Wang, Shi, Liu Yao, and Huyan Yan converged on Luoyang and captured it and the Emperor Huai of Jin, taking him to the Han Zhao capital Pingyang. Wang suggested that the capital be moved to Luoyang, but Liu Yao opposed and burned much of Luoyang, and Liu Cong did not seriously consider Wang's suggestion afterwards. In winter 311, Shi ambushed Wang at a feast and seized Wang's troops, and afterwards, while continuing to show outward loyalty to Han Zhao, became effectively independent. Indeed, his intent from that point on appeared to be enlarging his own personal dominion.

In spring 312, Empress Huyan died. In less than a month, Liu Cong began to take a large number of his high level officials' daughters and granddaughters as concubines, including a number of them with the family name Liu -- daughters and granddaughters of his official Liu Yin -- which Crown Prince Ai opposed due to the general prohibition against endogamy. However, Liu Cong rationalized that these Liu women were ethnically , and he himself was ethnically Xiongnu, and therefore could not have come from the same ancestry. From this point on, Liu Cong was said to have been spending all his time with these women and rarely spent time to handle government matters.

Also in spring 312, Liu Cong created the former Jin emperor the Duke of Kuaiji. Once, after inviting the duke to a feast, Liu Cong commented on a meeting they had while the former emperor was still the Prince of Yuzhang, leading to a notable colloquy in which the duke skillfully flattered the Han Zhao emperor. The next day, Liu Cong gave one of his favorite concubines, one of Liu Yin's granddaughters, to the duke as a gift, creating her as the Duchess of Kuaiji.

In summer 312, the first real signs of trouble of Liu Cong's reign came, as he executed a prince in charge of river matters and a duke in charge of construction on trivial matters -- the prince for failing to supply his court with sufficient fish and crabs, and the duke for failing to complete two palaces on time. When the general Wang Zhang tried to persuade him to control his behavior, he became enraged and wanted Wang killed, but imprisoned Wang after Wang's daughter, a concubine of his, interceded. Later, he regretted his actions and released and promoted Wang, but this incident started a pattern of impulsive actions, often with cruelty, that would plague the rest of Liu Cong's reign.

Later in summer 312, Liu Cong wanted to create Liu Yin's daughter Liu Ying empress to replace Empress Huyan, but at his mother Empress Dowager Zhang's insistence, he created another concubine, Empress Zhang Huiguang -- a daughter of his cousin Zhang Shi -- empress.

In fall 312, Han Zhao forces, under Liu Can and Liu Yao, dealt a serious blow to the Jin general Liu Kun the governor of Bing Province , who had been a constant threat to Han Zhao, capturing Liu Kun's headquarters at Jinyang and killing Liu Kun's parents. While Liu Kun was able to recapture Jinyang with the assistance of the Xianbei chief Tuoba Yilu the Duke of , he would not pose a serious threat to Han Zhao from that point on.

In spring 313, an incident would lead to Liu Cong's execution of the former Jin emperor, the Duke of Kuaiji. At the imperial new year celebration, Liu Cong ordered him to serve the high level officials wine, and former Jin officials Yu Min and Wang Juan could not control their emotions at seeing his humiliation, and cried outloud. This made Liu Cong angry, and he falsely accused Yu and Wang, along with a number of former Jin officials, of being ready to betray Pingyang and offer it to Liu Kun. He then executed those former Jin officials and poisoned the former emperor. He took the Duchess of Kuaiji, formerly awarded to the duke, back as a concubine.

Later in spring 313, Liu Cong's mother Empress Dowager Zhang died. Her grandniece, Empress Zhang, was so depressed and mournful after the empress dowager's death that she died as well. Liu Cong created Liu Yin's daughter to replace her, and ordered that a palace be built for her. His minister Chen Yuanda tried to persuade that it was overly wasteful, and Liu Cong, in anger, ordered Chen's execution. However, the new empress interceded, and Chen was spared and further promoted. For the next year, under Empress Liu's and Chen's advice, Liu Cong was said to have corrected his behavior to some extent.

In summer 313, the nephew of the deceased Emperor Huai of Jin, Sima Ye, declared himself emperor in Chang'an, but due to the weakness in his forces did not pose a serious threat to Han Zhao. Still, this move drew Liu Cong's attention, and for the next several years, Chang'an would become a major target for Han Zhao forces.

In spring 314, Empress Liu died, and it was said that from that point on, Liu Cong's palace would be thoroughly in a confused state, and Liu Cong's own personal behavior appeared to degenerate after this, without her counsel.

Late reign

In 314, Liu Cong made his son Liu Can the prime minister, with paramount powers. This brought fear in the heart of his brother, the crown prince Liu Ai, whose associates subsequently suggested in 315 that he start a coup and overthrow Liu Cong. Liu Ai did not agree to the plot, but news leaked anyway. Liu Cong put Liu Ai under house arrest.

Later in 315, Liu Cong took two of his general Jin Zhun's daughters, Jin Yueguang and Jin Yuehua into his palace, and created three empresses -- Jin Yueguang as Upper Empress, Jin Yuehua as Right Empress, and Consort Liu Left Empress -- against the custom that an emperor should only be one empress for the emperor at one time. Later that year, Chen Yuanda revealed to him that the Upper Empress had been committing adultery, and Liu Cong felt compelled to depose her; she committed suicide in shame, and Liu Cong, missing her beauty, greatly resented Chen for revealing her adultery.

In fall 315, Liu Cong, to appease the ever growing power of Shi Le, commissioned Shi with imperial powers in the eastern empire .

Around this time, he also became extremely trusting of the eunuchs Wang Chen , Xuan Huai , and the servant Guo Yi , entrusting all government matters to them and cancelling regular meetings with officials, letting Wang, Xuan, and Guo serve as communicators between him and the officials. This led to Wang, Xuan, and Guo becoming free to act at their whim, and they became greatly corrupt, in cooperation with Jin Zhun. A number of officials who dared to speak out against these men were executed. Both Guo and Jin had prior grudges against Crown Prince Ai, and they persauded Liu Can into believing that Crown Prince Ai would try to depose Liu Cong and kill him, presenting Liu Can with false evidence of such a plot. Liu Can therefore began to plot how to remove his uncle.

In fall 316, Liu Cong sent Liu Yao to attack Chang'an, and Liu Yao captured it and the Jin emperor, sending him to Pingyang, thus ending the so-called Western Jin Dynasty . Liu Cong created the former Jin emperor the Marquess of Huai'an, and he created Liu Yao the Prince of Qin and put him in charge of the western empire.

Around the new year of 317, Shi Le defeated Liu Kun and took over his domain of Jin's Bing Province. While this finally ended a former threat against Han Zhao, Shi's power became even stronger and independent of Liu Cong's.

In spring 317, Liu Can finally readied his plan to eliminate his uncle Crown Prince Ai. He falsely informed Crown Prince Ai that Pingyang was under attack and that his subordinates should arm themselves to prepare for the attack. Then, Liu Can informed his father that Crown Prince Ai was ready to attack -- and when Liu Cong's messengers then saw Crown Prince's associates armed, they believed Liu Can's accusations and reported back to Liu Cong. Liu Can then further interrogated Crown Prince Ai's subordinate and Qiang chiefs under torture, and the Di and Qiang chiefs were forced to falsely confess to a plot. Crown Prince Ai's associates and troops were all massacred -- estimated at the cost of 15,000 men -- and Crown Prince Ai was deposed and subsequently assassinated by Jin. When Di and Qiang tribes subsequently revolted due to the treatment of their chiefs, Liu Cong sent Jin to suppress them, and Jin was successful. In fall 317, Liu Cong created Liu Can crown prince.

In early 318, at a feast, Liu Cong had the former Jin emperor, the Marquess of Huai'an serve as butler, and a number of former Jin officials could not control themselves and cried outloud at their former emperor's humiliation. Further, around this time, there were a number of uprisings against Han Zhao, each claiming to want to capture Liu Can to exchange him for the former Jin emperor. Liu Can therefore reocommended that Sima Ye be executed, and Liu Cong agreed, executing him after receiving Liu Can's report.

In summer 318, an imperial meeting hall in Pingyang was destroyed by a great fire, and it killed 21 people, including Liu Cong's son Liu Kang the Prince of Kuaiji. Liu Cong was said to have greatly mourned his son, and this appeared to have a terrible effect on his health. He summoned Liu Yao and Shi Le to the capital to serve as regents, but both Liu Yao and Shi declined. He died soon after, and Liu Can became emperor. Later that year, however, Liu Can would be murdered by Jin, who would then massacre the imperial clan. Liu Yao and Shi defeated Jin and Liu Yao became emperor, but Liu Yao and Shi subsequently had a falling out, leading to Shi declaring independent and creating Later Zhao. The empire that Liu Cong built was torn into halves.

Era names

* ''Guangxing'' 310-311
* ''Jiaping'' 311-315
* ''Jianyuan'' 315-316
* ''Linjia'' 316-318

Personal information

* Father
**
* Mother
**
* Wives
** , mother of Crown Prince Can
** Empress Zhang Huiguang
** Empress Liu E
** Multiple empresses after Liu E's death -- see Liu Cong's later empresses
*** Upper Empress Jin Yueguang , daughter of Jin Zhun
*** Left Empress Liu, likely Liu E's sister or cousin
*** Right Empress Jin Yuehua , daughter of Jin Zhun
*** Upper Empress Fan
*** Left Empress Wang , adopted daughter of Wang Chen
*** Middle Empress Xuan , adopted daughter of Xuan Huai
* Major Concubines
** Consort Liu Ying , Liu E's sister , daughter of Liu Yin the Duke of Dachang, posthumously honored as Empress Wude
** Four nieces of Liu E, ''may'' include Left Empress Liu, granddaughters of Liu Yin
** Consort Zhang, Emperss Zhang Huiguang's sister
** Consort Wang, daughter of Wang Yu
** Consort Ren, daughter of Ren Yi
** Consort Wang, daughter of Wang Zhang the Duke of Dingxiang
** Consort Fan, daughter of Fan Long
** Consort Ma, daughter of Ma Jing
* Children
** Liu Can , initially the Prince of He'nei , later the Prince of Jin , later Crown Prince , later emperor
** Liu Yi , the Prince of Hejian
** Liu Yi , the Prince of Pengcheng
** Liu Li , the Prince of Gaoping
** Liu Fu , the Prince of Bohai
** Liu Ji , the Prince of Ji'nan
** Liu Luan , the Prince of Yan
** LIu Hong , the Prince of Chu
** Liu Mai , the Prince of Qi
** Liu Quan , the Prince of Qin
** Liu Cao , the Prince of Wei
** LIu Chi , the Prince of Zhao
** Liu Heng , the Prince of Dai
** Liu Cheng , the Prince of Wu
** Liu Lang , the Prince of Yingchuan
** Liu Gao , the Prince of Lingling
** Liu Xu , the Prince of Danyang
** Liu Jing , the Prince of Shu
** Liu Tan , the Prince of Jiujiang
** Liu Huang , the Prince of Linchuan
** Liu Kang , the Prince of Kuaiji
** Liu Yue

Shi Hu

2008-09-09T21:35:00.001-07:00

Shi Hu , courtesy name Jilong , formally Emperor Wu of Zhao , was an emperor of the / state Later Zhao. He was the founding emperor Shi Le's distant nephew, who took power in a coup after Shi Le's death from Shi Le's heir Shi Hong.

Shi Hu was a talented general who rarely lost battles, and Shi Le relied on him heavily in his conquest of northern and central China. However, he was also exceedingly cruel in his military campaigns. After he became the ruler of Later Zhao under the title of "heavenly prince" , he ruled the empire with a heavy hand, imposing heavy tax and labor burdens and spending much of his effort on constructing palaces and collecting concubines. His laws were cruel, and he applied them in a harsh manner, even killing two of his crown princes when they crossed him. While he was alive, his empire remained intact, but as soon as he died, his sons and adopted grandson Ran Min engaged in an internectine war that destroyed both the empire and the Jie people.

Early life

Shi Hu's father was named Koumi and was a son of a cousin of Shi Le's father Zhouhezhu . His father died early and he became raised by Zhouhezhu and his wife, Shi Le's mother Lady Wang, so he was also sometimes referred to as Shi Le's brother. During the early 300s, a severe famine affected the Jie tribesmen, and Shi Hu became separated from Shi Le. Later, after Shi Le had become a powerful Han Zhao general, Liu Kun the Jin governor of Bing Province , where the Jie were from, located Shi Hu and Lady Wang and sent them to Shi Le along with messengers, trying to persuade Shi Le to defect from Han Zhao to Jin. Shi Le, in gratitude, sent horses and jewel to Liu, but did not accept his invitation.

Shi Hu grew up in Shi Le's army, and when he was young, he became known for incessantly hunting and not following military orders, and particularly liked hitting people with sling bullets. Shi Le considered killing him, as the entire army was complaining about Shi Hu, but Lady Wang responded, "Before a fast bull grows up, it would often break wagons that it pulls. Endure him a little bit." By the time he got to age 18, he became known for his bravery in battle and skills in archery and horsemanship, and the entire army feared him. Shi Le gave him the sister of the general Guo Rong in marriage to him, but he favored his concubine and, at Zheng's instigation, killed Lady Guo. The same happened to his next wife, Lady Cui. He also became known for his cruelty in governing his soldiers and in battle, as he often executed officers who disagreed with his wishes or had great abilities, and whenever he captured a city, he often slaughtered the entire population. Even though Shi Le rebuked him at times, he could not get Shi Hu to change his ways. However, despite his cruelty, he also gave his officers leeway in their tactics, and he often led them into battles fearless of dangers. Therefore, Shi Le trusted him greatly and made him one of his top lieutenants.

During Shi Le's stint as Han Zhao general

Shi Le frequently sent Shi Hu out in command of forces against important foes and gave him the title of Marquess of Fanyang. The enemies that Shi Hu engaged while serving under Shi Le included:

* 313 - Shi Hu defeated Liu Kun's son Liu Yan , who was then in control of the important city Yecheng , forcing Liu Yan to flee and yield control of Yecheng to him. Shi Le made Shi Hu the governor of Wei Commandery , and henceforth Shi Hu saw Yecheng as his personal possession, taking up residence in the three towers that Cao Cao had built.
* 317 - Shi Le sent Shi Hu to attack the Jin general Zu Ti , who was recapturing territory south of the Yellow River, but after unable to defeat Zu conclusively, Shi Hu was forced to withdraw. Zu would henceforth pose a major threat to Shi Le until Zu's death in 321.
* 318 - Shi Hu was a major general in Shi Le's campaign against Jin Zhun, who had assassinated the Han Zhao emperor Liu Can and slaughtered members of the imperial Liu clan. His victories over Jin Zhun's cousin and succession Jin Ming forced Jin Ming to abandon the capital Pingyang and surrender to the new emperor Liu Yao.
* 319 - Shi Hu defended against a Zu Ti attack against the general Chen Chuan , who had earlier switched his allegiance from Jin to Shi Le, and he repelled Zu. Later in the year, Shi Hu attacked the Xianbei chief Riliuyan , based in the Hetao region and greatly defeated him.

In 319, Shi Le, after a dispute of Liu Yao, declared independence as the Prince of Zhao , and he bestowed Shi Hu a number of offices and the title the Duke of Zhongshan.

During Shi Le's reign as Later Zhao prince/emperor

After Shi Le's establishment of Later Zhao, he, even more so than before, extensively relied on Shi Hu to defeat major enemies. The major battles that Shi Hu engaged in included:

* 320 - Shi Hu captured Shao Xu , the Jin governor of Ji Province , one of the last major pockets of Jin resistance in northern China, in battle.
* 321 - Shi Hu captured Duan Pidi , the Jin governor of You Province and his brother Duan Wenyuan , wiping out the last major pocket of Jin resistance in northern China.
* 322 - Shi Hu captured the general Xu Kan , who had vacillated between allegiances to Jin and Later Zhao.
* 323 - Shi Hu captured the general Cao Ni , who had vacillated between allegiances to Jin, Han Zhao, and Later Zhao, and who was in control of most of modern Shandong, thus eliminating a major semi-independent domain in the north. It was after the siege of Cao's capital Guanggu that an example of Shi Hu's cruelty was shown -- he wanted to slaughter all of the population of Guanggu. After Later Zhao's governor of Qing Province , Liu Zheng protested that he was supposed to govern over the people and that he cannot govern without people, Shi nevertheless slaughtered most of the population but left 700 people alive for Liu to govern.
* 325 - With Later Zhao by this point in a state of constant war against Han Zhao, Shi Hu defeated and captured the Han Zhao general Liu Yue the Prince of Zhongshan, depriving the Han Zhao emperor Liu Yao of one of his key generals. He also captured and killed the Han Zhao general Wang Teng , who had earlier defected from Later Zhao.
* 328 - Shi Hu attacked Han Zhao, but was defeated by Liu Yao, who then attacked Luoyang. Shi Le had to personally relieve Luoyang, capturing Liu Yao in battle in early 329.
* 329 - After Liu Yao was captured, the Han Zhao crown prince Liu Xi and his brother abandoned the Han Zhao capital Chang'an and fled to Shanggui , but in the fall Liu Yin tried to recapture Chang'an. Shi Hu defeated him, forcing him to flee back to Shanggui, and then advanced on Shanggui, capturing it and killing Liu Xi and Liu Yin, ending Han Zhao.

As the years went by, Shi Hu began to develop an antagonistic relationship with Shi Le's key advisors Cheng Xia and Xu Guang , who had seen Shi Hu's ambitions and urged for Shi Le to curb his powers. The first conflict came in 326, when Shi Le, under Cheng's advice, had Shi Hong take over Yecheng's defenses, forcing Shi Hu's household to move out of the three towers. In 330, after Shi Le successively claimed the titles of "Heavenly Prince" and emperor, Shi Hu was created the Prince of Zhongshan, and two of his sons were also created princes as well. However, Shi Hu became incensed that he was not also given the title of Grand Chanyu, which Shi Le had granted to his son Shi Hong , and he secretly started plotting taking over after Shi Le's death. In 332, Shi Le tried to curb his powers by having the crown prince and the eunuch Yan Zhen participate in important decisions that were previously Shi Hu's to make, which only served to anger Shi Hu.

Coup against Shi Hong

As Shi Le grew ill in 333, Shi Hu entered the palace to serve him in his illness and cut off his communication with the outside. Shi Hu then issued false edicts summoning Shi Hong the Prince of Qin and Shi Le's adopted son Shi Kan the Prince of Pengcheng back to the capital Xiangguo and then detained them. When Shi Le died in the fall, Shi Hu immediately seized the crown prince Shi Hong and arrested and executed Cheng and Xu. Shi Hong, in fear, offered the throne to Shi Hu, but Shi Hu forced him to take the throne.

Shi Hu then forced Shi Hong to confer on him the title Prince of Wei -- intentionally paralleling Cao Cao's title while preparing for usurpation of the throne -- and granting him the nine bestowments. All of Shi Le's trusted officials were demoted or moved to posts with no real power, while Shi Hu's subordinates were moved into key positions. Shi Le's wife plotted with Shi Kan to try to start rebellions to overthrow Shi Hu, but after Shi Kan fled the capital but failed in his attempt to capture Linqiu , Shi Hu captured him and cruelly executed him by burning. Soon thereafter, Empress Dowager Liu's role was discovered, and she was executed as well.

In winter 333, Shi Sheng the Prince of Hedong, in defense of Chang'an, and Shi Lang, in defense of Luoyang, declared a rebellion against Shi Hu and sought assistance from Jin. the chief also rose and sought assistance from Former Liang. Shi Hu personally attacked Shi Lang and captured Luoyang easily, killing Shi Lang. He then attacked Chang'an with his son Shi Ting the Prince of Liang, but Shi Ting was defeated by Shi Sheng's subordinate Guo Quan and killed. Shi Hu was forced to withdraw. However, Shi Sheng did not know about this victory and, when the Xianbei chief Shegui rebelled, panicked and fled, abandoning Chang'an, and was killed in flight. Guo fled to Shanggui but was defeated in 334. Pu surrendered and was pardoned. That ended significant resistance to Shi Hu.

In 334, unable to endure Shi Hu's vengeance, Shi Hong personally carried imperial seals and visited Shi Hu's palace, offering to abdicate to him. Shi Hu declined with sarcastic language, and Shi Hong, knowing that Shi Hu had even crueler intentions, could carry out no other intentions. In late 334, Shi Hu deposed Shi Hong to the title the Prince of Haiyang, but soon had him, his mother Empress Dowager Cheng, and his brothers Shi Hong and Shi Hui the Prince of Nanyang put to death. The officials offered the imperial title to Shi Hu, but Shi Hu declined and took the title "Regent " .

Early reign

In 335, Shi Hu moved the capital from Xiangguo to Yecheng. Later that year, he , unhappy that he was unable to distinguish which monks had become monks because they truly believed Buddhism and which had taken vows to evade taxes and labor, considered outlawing commoners from becoming monks. However, after his officials proposed a far more extensive ban than he wanted, he cancelled the plan and instead issued an edict proclaiming religious freedom.

Starting 336, Shi Hu began a series of palace-building projects, completing a number of exceedingly luxurious palaces. One of them, Taiwu Palace , was described in this manner:

:''The foundation was nine and a third meters tall, 65 steps long and 75 steps wide, all made of marble. The bottom contains a basement that is largely enough for 500 armed guards. The gaps between the bricks were filled with paint; the tops of buttresses was decorated with gold, and the top of columns were decorated with silver. The screens were made of pearls, and the walls were made of jade. The workmanship was extremely fine. The imperial bedroom has facilities including a bed made of white jade and comforters with fine ribbons, and on top of the comforters were sown in lotus flowers made of gold.''

He further built nine additional palaces and selected many women to fill the palaces. The tax and labor burdens of these projects greatly encumbered the people, and he further gathered many men as soldiers with intent to conquer other states, increasing the burden.

In 337, Shi Hu claimed the title Heavenly Prince , and he created his wife Zheng Yingtao empress and his son Shi Sui crown prince, while his sons who were previously created princes were given duke titles instead.

Later in 337, Shi Hu would kill his recently-created crown prince. Shi Sui was himself no less cruel than his father, and one of his favorite pastime was to order a woman to dress well, and then behead her and eat her body. Shi Hu had put him in charge of most key decisions, but at times, when Shi Sui would report his decisions, Shi Hu would be angry and yell, "Why report such minute things?" while if Shi Sui did not do so, he would yell, "Why not report?" He would further whip Shi Sui at times he was angry. Shi Sui therefore considered assassinating his father. Shi Hu discovered this and killed Shi Sui's coconspirators, but initially pardoned him. However, Shi Sui refused to apologize, and this angered Shi Hu, who deposed him and then executed him, along with his wife Crown Princess Zhang and his 26 children, burying them in one humongous coffin. He also killed some 200 subordinates of Shi Sui, and he deposed Empress Zheng to the title of Duchess Dowager of Donghai. He instead created his second son Shi Xuan as crown prince and his mother as empress. However, he also favored another son by Empress Du, Shi Tao , and a rivalry between the brothers soon developed.

In late 337, Shi Hu entered into an alliance with the Former Yan prince Murong Huang to attack the Xianbei . In 338, the joint forces defeated and essentially wiped out the Duan, but Shi Hu, angry that Murong Huang withdrew his forces early, advanced on the Former Yan capital Jicheng and surrounded it, intending to wipe Former Yan out. However, after nearly 20 days of siege, Later Zhao forces were uanble to capture Jicheng and forced to withdraw, and they suffered heavy losses at the hands of a Former Yan general, Murong Huang's son Murong Ke. During the next few years, Later Zhao would have no real way of curbing Former Yan expansions, and was eventually forced to yield most of formerly Duan territory to Former Yan.

In 339, displeased that the Jin general Yu Liang was planning an attack against Later Zhao, Shi Hu acted first, sending his adopted grandson Shi Min to attack the borders with Jin, pillaging the border region and capturing Zhucheng , ending Yu's hopes of a northern campaign.

In 340, Shi Hu briefly entered into an alliance with Cheng Han's emperor Li Shou against Jin. However, after initially excitely wishing to attack Jin, Li Shou cancelled his plan after contrary counsel by Gong Zhuang , and the alliance did not come to anything.

Late reign

In 342, Shi Hu continued a large number of construction projects, and further ordered major conscriptions, with plans to attack not only Jin but also Former Liang and Former Yan. The people were greatly burdened, and the officials took the chances of these projects to engage in corruption. The people were described of being so troubled that many committed suicide. In 344, after believing the astrologer Zhao Lan that a campaign would bring ill fortune, cancelled the campaign plans.

In 346, the Later Zhao generals Wang Zhuo and Ma Qiu attacked Former Liang with intent to conquer it, but after some initial successes, they were repelled by the Former Liang general Xie Ai . Another attack by Ma in 347 was also repelled by Xie.

Later in 347, believing a Buddhist monk's words that the Hu were about to lose their power to the Han and that the Han needed to be suppressed, further forced the Han men to engage in great labor.

In 348, the conflict between Shi Xuan and Shi Tao came to a horrible resolution. After a dispute over Shi Tao's building of a palace named Xuanguang Palace -- since that name violated the naming taboo on Shi Xuan's name -- Shi Xuan assassinated Shi Tao and considered assassinating Shi Hu as well. Shi Hu quickly suspected Shi Xuan, and his suspicions were fanned by that Shi Xuan showed no sign of mourning for Shi Tao. He detained Shi Xuan and arrested his followers, discovering the assassination plot. He planned to execute Shi Xuan, despite opposition from the Buddhist monk Fu Tucheng, whose prophecies he had respected greatly and who had predicted that Shi Xuan's death would bring great disaster on the empire. Indeed, he carried out a most cruel execution of Shi Xuan. Shi Xuan was placed near a wooden platform with a ladder leading up to it. His hairs and tongue were then pulled out, and then he was dragged up the ladder onto the platform. A rope was threaded through his pierced jaw, and then he was hoisted onto a wooden pyre. His hands and feet were then cut off, his eyes gouged out, and his abdomen sliced open and entrails allowed to flow out -- as how Shi Tao appeared at his death. Then, a great fire was set on the pyre, and Shi Xuan was burned to death. Shi Xuan's mother Empress Du was reduced to commoner status, and Shi Xuan's wife, concubines, and sons were all executed, including his youngest, whom Shi Hu was holding in his arms and was considering pardoning -- but the executioner grabbed the child out of Shi Hu's arms and executed him. Shi Hu, shocked by his young grandson's death, grew ill. Shi Xuan's subordinates were executed as well, and the crown prince's guards were exiled to Liang Province .

Later that year, Shi Hu considered a new heir. Of his sons, Shi Bin the Duke of Yan and Shi Zun the Duke of Pengcheng were considered the most capable, but under the advice of Zhang Chai , who understood Shi Hu's fear of yet another son rebelling and took advantage of it by suggesting that the reasons why his prior crown princes rebelled was because their mothers were of low birth, Shi Hu instead created his youngest son Shi Shi the Duke of Qi crown prince, and his mother the youngest daughter of the Han Zhao emperor Liu Yao, empress.

In spring 349, Shi Hu claimed the title of emperor and promoted all of his duke sons to princes. He soon however had to face a major rebellion -- by former Crown Prince Xuan's guard captain Liang Du , whose men were driven by desperation after finding out that they were not covered by the general pardon that Shi Hu issued when he took imperial title. They defeated every army sent to oppose them, until the Qiang chief Yao Yizhong was able to defeat them. Yao took the opportunity to try to persuade Shi Hu that it was unwise to have an heir so young, but although Shi Hu honored Yao greatly, he did not listen to Yao.

In summer 349, Shi Hu was near death, and he ordered that Shi Zun and Shi Bin be made regents for Shi Shi. This interfered with Empress Liu's and Zhang Chai's plans to take over the government, and they issued false edicts imprisoning Shi Bin and sending Shi Zun away. As Shi Hu grew closer to death, Shi Bin was put to death. After he died, Shi Shi took the throne, but after just 33 days was deposed by Shi Zun, who was then deposed by another son of Shi Hu, Shi Jian the Prince of Yiyang. Shi Jian then fell under the control of Shi Min, and by 350 Shi Min had killed Shi Jian and massacred most Jie and Xiongnu people, changed his family name back to his father's original Ran , and usurped the throne. Another son of Shi Hu's, Shi Zhi, would claim imperial title and try to reestablish Later Zhao, but by 351 he was dead as well. Shi Hu's empire and people were destroyed, just two years after his death.

Era names

* ''Jianwu'' 335-349
* ''Taining'' 349

Personal information

* Father
** Koumi , posthumously honored as Emperor Xiao, distant nephew of Shi Le's father Zhouhezhu
* Wives
** Lady Guo, sister of the general Guo Rong
** Lady Cui
** Empress Zheng Yingtao , mother of Princes Sui and Zun
** Empress Du Zhu , mother of Princes Xuan and Tao
** , daughter of Liu Yao , mother of Prince Shi
* Children
** Shi Sui , initially the Prince of Qi , later the Crown Prince of Wei , later the Crown Prince
** Shi Xuan , initially the Prince of Hejian , later the Crown Prince
** Shi Tao , initially the Prince of Le'an , later the Duke of Qin
** Shi Zun , initially the Prince of Qi , later the Duke of Pengcheng , later the Prince of Pengcheng , later emperor
** Shi Jian , initially the Prince of Dai , later the Duke of Yiyang , later the Prince of Yiyang , later emperor
** Shi Bao , initially the Prince of Leping , later the Duke of Leping , later the Prince of Leping
** Shi Bin , initially the Prince of Pingyuan , later the Prince of Zhangwu , later the Duke of Yan , later the Prince of Yan
** Shi Ting , the Prince of Liang
** Shi Kun , the Prince of Ruyin
** Shi Zhi , initially the Prince of Xinxing, later emperor
** Shi Shi , initially the Duke of Qi, later the Crown Prince , later emperor

Shi Le

2008-09-09T21:34:00.002-07:00

Shi Le , courtesy name Shilong , formally Emperor Ming of Zhao , was the founding emperor of the / state Later Zhao. In young age, he was sold as a slave by Jin Dynasty 's ethnically officials, but he later helped start a rebellion and eventually became a powerful general for the Xiongnu state Han Zhao, conquering most of northern China in Han Zhao's name but holding the territory under his own control. In 319, after a dispute with the Han Zhao emperor Liu Yao, he broke away from Han Zhao and formed his own state, Later Zhao, and in 329 he captured Liu Yao and conquered Han Zhao, adding western China to his empire as well.

Shi Le was known as a brilliant general, but was criticized by historians for excessive cruelty during his campaigns. He also put too much power in the hands of his ambitious and even more ferocious nephew Shi Hu who, after Shi Le's death, seized power from Shi Le's son Shi Hong.

Early life

Shi Le was born in 274 -- but was not named Shi Le, and certainly not with the family name Shi, as it appeared that the did not use family names at the time. His grandfather, named Yeyiyu , and his father, named Zhouhezhu , were minor Jie chiefs, and their tribe traditionally lived in Bing Province . Shi grew up in Wuxiang .

In 303 or 304, Bing Province suffered a major famine, and the Jie tribes were seriously affected. Shi Le's tribe spread out and became refugees. Shi and many other Jie and Xiongnu men were captured by Jin officials and sold as as slaves. Eventually, he was sold to a man named Shi Huan , but Shi Huan freed him after becoming impressed with his talents. Eventually, he became a leader of bandits, and at one point he befriended one of Sima Ying the Prince of Chengdu's military commanders, Ji Sang . Sima Ying was then stationed at and was the most powerful of the Jin imperial princes.

After Sima Ying briefly served as crown prince in 304, he was forced to flee with his brother Emperor Hui to the capital Luoyang and was deposed by Sima Yong the Prince of Hejian. Many of his subordinates, including Ji and Gongsun Fan , deserted, and Gongsun eventually started a rebellion with the stated goal of restoring Sima Ying. Ji and Shi both joined the rebellion -- and it was only at that time that Ji gave his friend the family name "Shi" and personal name "Le." After Gongsun was subsequently defeated and killed, Ji became leader of the rebellion and made Shi his key general -- now with the goal of avenging Sima Ying, who was forced to commit suicide in 306. However, their rebellion, while briefly successful in capturing Yecheng in 307 and killing Sima Teng the Prince of Xincai, ultimately was defeated in the winter of that year, and Shi instead joined , an ethnically Xiongnu former Sima Ying subordinate who had by now declared independence from Jin and established his own state Han Zhao. Liu Yuan made him a general.

As Han Zhao general

As commander of a roving army

For the next few years, Shi led his roving band, which he appeared to have largely recruited himself, throughout central China, losing few battles but largely interested in pillaging and not in holding territory. From the beginning, though, Shi showed willingness to accept learned men into his army to serve as advisors and officers, unlike many other agrarian revolt leaders, and he gained many followers, mostly from the Jie and other non- ethnicities, but including some Han as well. After Liu Yuan's death in 310, Shi continued to submit to the authority of Liu Yuan's son and successor Liu Cong.

In summer 311, Shi's prestige and power increased greatly when he was able to utterly defeat the largest Jin force remaining in central China. The Jin regent Sima Yue the Prince of Donghai had died earlier that year, and the large force that he commanded was trying to escort his funeral train back to his principality of Donghai . Shi Le intercepted them at Ku , and while the Jin force was much larger than his, Shi's force was mostly cavalry, and it surrounded and disrupted the procession of the Jin force that it stampeded itself into oblivion. The many Jin princes and officials were captured by Shi, and Shi executed them all. Shi, from that point on, became a feared general.

In summer 311, several major Han Zhao generals, including Shi, Huyan Yan , Liu Yao, and Wang Mi , converged on the Jin capital Luoyang, which had been left defenseless by Sima Yue. Without major resistance, the capital fell, and Emperor Huai of Jin was captured and later executed. Later that year, Shi captured the powerful Jin general Gou Xi and assassinated fellow Han Zhao general Wang, merging their forces with his own. As Shi's army grew, he increasingly trusted his young distant nephew Shi Hu as a general, and under the violent but talented Shi Hu, Shi Le's army became known for its cruel treatment of civilians but was also whipped into shape, rarely losing battles.

In spring 312, though, Shi Le, preparing to have his army cross the Yangtze River to attack Jianye, then under the control of the Jin general the Prince of Langye, encountered difficulties as his army was trapped in the rain. Fearful that Jin forces were going to attack, Shi's key advisor Diao Ying suggested promising to submit to Sima Rui. Another advisor Zhang Bin disagreed, noting that Shi had dealt Jin too much damage previously to be able to submit to them. Instead, he advised Shi to retreat north -- noting that Jin forces were so fearful of him that they would not likely attack -- and that he should capture a defensible city to serve as headquarters so that he could start to hold and increase his territory. Under Zhang's advice, Shi, later that year, captured Xiangguo and made it his headquarters. He became increasingly reliant on Zhang for advice, and he respected Zhang so much that he no longer referred to him by name.

After settlement in Xiangguo

In early 313, Wang Jun , the Jin governor of You Province , allied with the Xianbei chief Duan Jilujuan the Duke of Liaoxi, made a major assault on Xiangguo, the defense of which had not yet been completed. Shi's general Kong Chang , however, made a surprise attack against Duan forces, capturing Duan Jilujuan's cousin Duan Mopei . Most of Shi's generals wanted to execute Duan Mopei, but instead Shi treated Duan Mopei with courtesy and returned him to Duan forces. The Duan then withdrew and began to disassociate themselves from Wang. Subsequent to this battle, Shi began to use Xiangguo as a base of operations and gradually took increasingly larger pieces of territory under his control -- still under Han Zhao's name, but acting independently. As it became increasingly clear that Liu Cong, who was talented but violent and wasteful, had become distracted by sensual pleasures and was not able to make Han Zhao into an efficient state, Shi began to act even more independently.

In early 314, Shi considered plans to destroy the still powerful Wang. Knowing that Wang long had dreams of becoming an emperor, since he believed that his name was prophesied as one for an emperor, Shi pretended to be ready to submit to him and offered him the imperial throne. Wang, trusting Shi's intentions, no longer defended against him. Several months later, Shi, under the guise of offering tribute, made a surprise attack on Wang's headquarters in Ji , capturing and executing Wang. In fall 315, Liu Cong officially granted Shi imperial authority in the eastern empire, formalizing Shi's hold on his domain.

In early 317, Shi defeated the Jin governor of Bing Province, Liu Kun , who had previously posed a major threat to Han Zhao, and took Bing Province under his control, forcing Liu to flee to You Province to join Duan.

In 318, Liu Cong died and was succeede by his son Liu Can. Shortly after, however, Liu Can was killed by his father-in-law Jin Zhun in a coup, and Jin slaughtered all members of the imperial Liu household in the capital Pingyang . Both Shi and Liu Yao, a cousin of Liu Cong, led their armies against Jin Zhun. Liu Yao declared himself emperor, and Shi decided, at that time, to submit to Liu Yao's authority. Liu Yao created him the Duke of Zhao. Subsequently, Jin Zhun, with his forces under pressure from two sides, was assassinated and succeeded by his cousin Jin Ming , who abandoned Pingyang and surrendered to Liu Yao. Shi entered the capital but did not occupy it. With the capital heavily damaged by the coup and the subsequent battles, Liu Yao moved the capital to Chang'an.

In early 319, Shi sent a delegation to pay tribute to Liu Yao. Liu Yao was very pleased, and created Shi the Prince of Zhao. However, subsequently, Liu Yao became suspicious that Shi was about to rebel, killed his lead delegate. Shi became angry, and later that year declared independence under the title of Prince of Zhao.

Independence and reign as Prince of Zhao

For the first several years of his independence, Shi concentrated on annexing remaining pockets of Jin power in northern and central China. Later in 319, he attacked and defeated Duan Pidi, seizing You Province, and Duan was forced to flee to join Shao Xu the Jin governor of Ji Province . In 320, Shi Le sent Shi Hu and Kong Chang against Shao, capturing him. For a while longer, Duan served as the leader of the Jin forces remaining in Ji Province, but in 321, Shi Hu captured him as well. The only remaining point of Jin power north of the Yellow River became the Xianbei chief Murong Hui the Duke of Liaodong, who claimed Jin vassal status but was acting fairly independently in controlling the modern Liaoning. Shi, however, reached a stalemate to the south with the Jin governor of Yu Province Zu Ti , and eventually the sides reached an informal détente with the Yellow River serving as the border, leading to peace and trade relations. After Zu's death in 321, however, Later Zhao forces began to again attack Jin, gradually capturing Jin territory between the Yellow River and the Huai River.

In 322, Zhang Bin died -- and Shi lamented at the time that Zhang's death might prevent him from completing greater things.

In 323, Shi Hu attacked Cao Ni -- a general occupying modern Shandong who vacillated between being a Jin vassal and a Han Zhao vassal but acting independently -- capturing him and annexing his domain into Later Zhao control.

In 324, Later Zhao and Han Zhao began actively engaging each other, and for the next several years, they would wage war against each other bitterly, fighting over both their border territory and the parts of territory near the Yellow River still under Jin control. In 325, Shi Hu would defeat the Han Zhao general Liu Yue , seizing the entire Luoyang region, which had previously been under split Jin and Han Zhao control, for Later Zhao.

In 328, however, Han Zhao fought back, and forces under Liu Yao's personal command defeated Shi Hu's forces and surrounded Luoyang. Shi Le personally led his force to aid Luoyang, engaging Liu Yao in battle and capturing him. He initially treated Liu Yao with some respect and ordered Liu Yao to order his crown prince Liu Xi to surrender, but when Liu Yao refused, Shi executed him. Liu Xi, in fear of Later Zhao forces, abandoned the Han Zhao capital Chang'an and retreated to Shanggui with his brother . In fall 328, Liu Yin tried to lead Han Zhao forces to recapture Chang'an, but Shi Hu defeated him, and subsequently marched on Shanggui, capturing it and killing Liu Xi, Liu Yin, and the other Han Zhao nobles, ending Han Zhao. The former Han Zhao territory became Later Zhao possessions.

As emperor

In 330, Shi Le assumed the title "Heavenly Prince" and created his wife princess and his son Shi Hong crown prince; he granted another son, Shi Hong the Prince of Qin the title "Grand Chanyu", as official leader of the Wu Hu under his rule. This drew secret ire from Shi Hu, who felt that as the general who contributed the most to Shi Le's campaign successes, he should have been crown prince or at least Grand Chanyu and was not satisfied with his title as the Prince of Zhongshan. Later that year, Shi assumed the title of emperor and created Princess Liu empress.

Shi Le, not realizing Shi Hu's intentions, still trusted Shi Hu greatly, despite warnings from his advisors Cheng Xia and Xu Guang , who advised him to gradually strip Shi Hu's powers and transfer them to Shi Hong. In 332, Shi Le did transfer some of Shi Hu's authorities to Shi Hong and the eunuch Yan Zhen , but this only served to aggravate Shi Hu.

In 333, Shi Le grew ill, and Shi Hu, during Shi Le's illness, began to put his sons in command of armies, preparing for a coup. When Shi Le died in the fall, Shi Hu immediately seized power in a coup, killing Cheng and Xu. Apparently pursuant to Shi Le's directions, he was secretly buried at a location unknown publicly, and an empty casket was instead buried in a grand ceremony at an imperial tomb. Shi Hu made Shi Hong take the throne, but would depose Shi Hong in 334 and seize the throne himself. Shi Le's descendants would all die at Shi Hu's hands.

Era names

* ''Zhaowang'' 319-328
* ''Taihe'' 328-330
* ''Jianping'' 330-333

Personal information

* Father
** Zhouhezhu , also named Qiyijia , minor Jie tribal chief
* Mother
** Lady Wang
* Wife
**
* Major Concubines
** , sister of Cheng Xia , mother of Crown Prince Hong
* Children
** Shi Xing , the original heir apparent, died sometime before 330
** Shi Hong , the Crown Prince , later emperor
** Shi Hong , the Prince of Qin
** Shi Hui , the Prince of Nanyang

Helian Bobo

2008-09-09T21:34:00.001-07:00

Helian Bobo , né Liu Bobo , courtesy name Qujie , formally Emperor Wulie of Xia , was the founding emperor of the /Xiongnu state . He is generally considered to be an extremely cruel ruler, one who betrayed every benefactor that he had, and whose thirst for killing was excessive even for the turbulent times that he was in. He built an impressive capital for his state at Tongwan that remained difficult to siege, even hundreds of years later during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period.

Early life

Liu Bobo was born in 381, when his father Liu Weichen was an important Xiongnu chief and a vassal of Former Qin. It is not known whether his mother Lady Fu was Liu Weichen's wife or concubine. He was one of Liu Weichen's younger sons. After Former Qin collapsed in light of various rebellions after its emperor Fu Jiān's defeat at the Battle of Fei River in 383, Liu Weichen took control of what is now part of Inner Mongolia south of the Yellow River and extreme northern Shaanxi, and while he nominally submitted to both Later Qin and Western Yan as a vassal, he was actually a powerful independent ruler. However, in 391, he sent his son Liu Zhilidi to attack Northern Wei's prince , and Tuoba Gui not only defeated Liu Zhilidi, but crossed the Yellow River to attack Liu Weichen's capital Yueba , capturing it and forcing Liu Weichen and Liu Zhilidi to flee. The next day, Liu Weichen was killed by his subordinates, and Liu Zhilidi was captured. Tuoba Gui seized Liu Weichen's territory and people and slaughtered his clan.

However, Liu Bobo escaped and fled to the Xuegan tribe, whose chief Tai Xifu refused to turn him over despite Northern Wei demands. Instead, Tai delivered Liu Bobo to the Xianbei tribal chief Mo Yigan the Duke of Gaoping, a Later Qin vassal, and Mo Yigan not only gave Liu Bobo refuge but also married one of his daughters to Liu Bobo. Liu Bobo, from that point on, became highly dependent on his father-in-law. Little is known about Liu Bobo's life during the following years. In 402, Tuoba Gui's brother Tuoba Zun the Prince of Changshan attacked Mo's homebase of Gaoping , and Mo was forced to flee to Later Qin, abandoning his own people, who were scattered about, although later Later Qin recaptured Gaoping and gave that city back to Mo.

Sometime before 407, Liu Bobo, who had become known for being handsome, ability to speak well, alertness, and intelligence, came to the attention of Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing. Yao Xing was so impressed by Liu Bobo's abilities when he met Liu Bobo that he wanted to make him a major general to defend against Northern Wei. Yao Xing's brother Yao Yong , however, spoke against it, believing Liu Bobo to be untrustworthy, stating:

: ''Liu Bobo is arrogant toward his superiors and elders. He is cruel to his subordinates and associates. He is also greedy, treacherous, lacking in love, and inattentive to friendships. He changes his attitude quickly and abandons things quickly. If you overly trust and favor this type of person, he will surely create a disaster.''

Yao Xing initially, at Yao Yong's counsel, did not give Liu Bobo a commission, but eventually was so seduced by his talent that he made him a general and the Duke of Wuyuan, giving him the responsibility of defending Shuofang .

In 407, after suffering a number of losses against Northern Wei, Yao Xing decided to make peace with Northern Wei. Upon hearing this, Liu Bobo became angry, because his father had been killed by Northern Wei, and he planned rebellion. He therefore forcibly seized the horses that Yujiulü Shelun , the of Rouran, had recently offered to Yao Xing as a tribute, and then made a surprise attack on his father-in-law Mo Yigan, capturing Gaoping and killing Mo, seizing his troops. He then declared himself a descendant of Yu the Great, the founder of Xia Dynasty, and named his state Xia. He claimed the title "Heavenly Prince" .

Early reign

Despite Liu Bobo's stated hatred for Northern Wei, however, he concentrated his efforts on undermining Later Qin, continually harassing Later Qin's northern territories and draining Later Qin's resources. He therefore did not settle in a capital city; rather, he roved about with his mobile cavalry, constantly looking for Later Qin cities to pillage.

Also in 407, Liu Bobo sought marriage with a daughter of the Southern Liang prince Tufa Rutan, but Tufa Rutan refused. In anger, Liu Bobo launched a punitive raid against Southern Liang but then retreated. Tufa Rutan gave chase and, believing that he greatly outpowered Liu Bobo, was careless in his military actions. Liu Bobo led him into a canyon and then blocked the exit with ice and wagons, and then ambushed him -- and the defeat was such that it was said that 60% to 70% of Southern Liang's famed officials and generals died in the battle. Tufa Rutan barely escaped capture.

In 408, Yao Xing sent his general Qi Nan to launch a major attack on Liu Bobo. Liu Bobo initially withdraw to let Qi believe that he feared Qi, and Liu Bobo made a surprise counter-attack and captured Qi. Subsequently, much of Later Qin's northern territories fell into Xia hands.

In 409, Yao Xing himself launched an attack on Liu Bobo, but when he reached Ercheng , he was nearly trapped by Liu Bobo, and escaped only after major casualties. This defeat forced Yao Xing to cancel a mission, commanded by his general Yao Qiang , to try to save Southern Yan from being destroyed by . For the next several years, Xia and Later Qin forces battled constantly, often inconclusively, but with the wars becoming much more costly to Later Qin than Xia, with Southern Liang and Western Qin no longer being willing to be Later Qin vassals as a result. In 412, when Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui was assassinated by his nephew Qifu Gongfu , Liu Bobo considered attacking Western Qin despite its status as an ally, but at the counsel of his advisor Wang Maide did not do so.

By 413, Liu Bobo finally resolved to build a capital -- one that he wanted to make absolutely impenetrable. He commissioned his cruel general Chigan Ali as the chief architect of the capital, which he named Tongwan -- because, as he stated, he wanted to unite China and be the lord of 10,000 states. Chigan ordered that the soil used in constructing the wall be steamed, so that it would be hardened and difficult to attack, and he often tested the walls during its construction; if an iron wedge were able to insert even one inch deep into the wall, the workmen who were in charge of that section of wall would be executed, and their bodies would be stuffed into the wall. Further, Liu Bobo himself ordered that when weapons and armors are made, that some of the metalsmiths would be executed -- because his orders were, for example, that arrows should be shot at armors; if the arrows could penetrate the armors, the smiths who forged the armors would be executed, and if the arrows could not penetrate the armors, then the smiths who made the arrows would be executed. As a result of this bloodshed, however, Tongwan became a highly defensible city, and the weapons and armors that he had were all of exceedingly high quality.

Also in 413, Liu Bobo believed that his family name should be changed -- since his ancestors took on the Liu family name from the Han Dynasty imperial house, believing that one of their female ancestors was a Han princess, but Liu Bobo believed this to be improper. He therefore changed his family name to Helian -- intending it to mean that his might was so great that it would, alas be connected to the heavens. He also ordered the nobles to change their family name to Tiefa , intending it to mean that they were as strong as iron and be able to attack others.

In 414, Helian Bobo created his wife "Heavenly Princess." He created his son Helian Gui crown prince, and created his other sons dukes.

In 415, Helian Bobo entered into an alliance with Juqu Mengxun, the prince of Northern Liang.

In 416, with Later Qin, now under the rule of Yao Xing's son Yao Hong, under a major attack by the general , Helian Bobo believed that Later Qin would fall to Jin, but that Jin would not be easily able to hold Later Qin's capital region -- Guanzhong. He therefore intensified his own attacks on Later Qin as well, and preparing to use the opportunity of Later Qin's destruction to seize more territory. As Later Qin neared destruction, Helian Bobo seized its western territory, centering Anding , and then prepared for an eventual confrontation with Jin forces, which destroyed Later Qin in 417 and captured its capital Chang'an.

In winter 417, Liu Yu, intent on wanting to seize the Jin throne, left Chang'an under the command of his 11-year-old son Liu Yizhen , and while he left several able generals to assist Liu Yizhen, those generals soon conflicted with each other and were killing each other -- and eventually, LIu Yizhen, believing that the main assistant Liu Yu left him, Wang Xiu , to be about to rebel, had Wang executed. Meanwhile, Helian Bobo sent his crown prince Helian Gui, another son Helian Chang, and Wang Maide to command armies south, not initially engaging Jin forces but isolating Chang'an from the rest of Jin territory -- a task made easier when Liu Yizhen recalled Jin forces near Chang'an all to Chang'an. Liu Yu, hearing this, sent his general Zhu Lingshi to replace Liu Yizhen and recalled Liu Yizhen, but as soon as LIu Yizhen and his troops left Chang'an, they were intercepted and crushed by Xia forces under Helian Gui. Liu Yizhen barely escaped, but the vast majority of the army was captured. Helian Bobo stacked the skulls of the Jin dead into a hill-like structure. Meanwhile, the people of Chang'an, who were angry that Liu Yizhen's forces pillaged the city before leaving, expelled Zhu, allowing Helian Bobo to enter Chang'an easily. Helian Bobo then claimed the title of emperor.

Late reign

Most of Helian Bobo's officials suggested that he move the capital to Chang'an, but he, believing that Tongwan was in a better position to defend against Northern Wei, refused and kept his capital at Tongwan, leaving Helian Gui in charge of Chang'an as viceroy.

The campaign against Jin showcased Helian Bobo's abilities, but at this time, he also grew increasingly cruel. He was described by traditional historians in this way:

: ''He was arrogant and cruel, treating the people like wild plants and mustard greens. He often climbed up towers with bows and arrows, and whenever he had a sudden thought of distrust, dislike, or anger at a person, he would kill that person personally. If any of his officials looked at him in a gazing manner, he would gouge out their eyes. Anyone who laughed frivolously would have their lips sliced open with knives. Anyone who dared to offer a contrary opinion would first have his tongue cut out and then head cut off.''

In 424, for reasons lost to history, Helian Bobo decided to depose Crown Prince Gui and create another son, Helian Lun the Duke of Jiuquan crown prince. Upon hearing this news, Helian Gui commanded his troops north from Chang'an and attacked Helian Lun. Their forces met at Gaoping, and Helian Gui defeated and killed Helian Lun. However, Helian Lun's brother Helian Chang then made a surprise attack on Helian Gui, killing him and seizing his troops, leading them back to Tongwan. Helian Bobo was pleased and created Helian Chang crown prince.

In summer 425, Helian Bobo died. Helian Chang succeeded him.

Era names

* ''Longsheng'' 407-413
* ''Fengxiang'' 413-418
* ''Changwu'' 418-419
* ''Zhenxing'' 419-425

Personal information

* Father
** Liu Weichen , Xiongnu chief, posthumously honored as Emperor Huan
* Mother
** Lady Fu, posthumously honored as Empress Huanwen
* Wives
** Lady Mo, daughter of Xianbei chief Mo Yigan
**
* Children
** Helian Gui , the Crown Prince
** Helian Yan , the Duke of Yangping
** Helian Chang , initially the Duke of Taiyuan , later Crown Prince , later emperor
** Helian Lun , the Duke of Jiuquan
** Helian Ding , initially the Duke of Pingyuan , later the Prince of Pingyuan, later emperor
** Helian Man , the Duke of Henan
** Helian An , the Duke of Zhongshan
** Helian Zhuxing
** Helian Weiyidai
** Helian Shegan , the Duke of Shanggu
** Helian Duluogu , the Duke of Guangyang
** Helian Wushiba , the Duke of Danyang
** Helian Tugu , the Duke of Wuling
** Princess, later Empress Helian of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei
** Princess, later consort of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei
** Princess, later consort of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei

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Empress Mao (Gao)

2008-09-09T21:31:00.010-07:00

Empress Mao was an empress of the / state Former Qin. Her husband was Fu Deng .

She was the daughter of the general Mao Xing , who served as the governor of He Province during the reign of Fu Jiān . After Former Qin began to disintegrate in 384 following the defeat at the Battle of Fei River, the generals in the western empire began to turn on each other, and in 386, Mao Xing was attacked by the generals Wang Guang and Wang Tong , who were brothers. He defeated Wang Guang, but when he was about to attack Wang Tong, his soldiers, worn out by the wars, assassinated him. After an interim command by Wei Ping , eventually, Fu Deng, a distant relative of Fu Jiān, took over the command of his forces, and was created the Prince of Nan'an by Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi . It might have been at this time that Fu Deng married her, or the marriage might have taken place earlier.

After Fu Pi was killed by forces in 386, Fu Deng assumed imperial title. In 387, he created her, who at that time carried the title of Princess of Nan'an, empress. She was described to be beautiful and mighty in battle, capable in horsemanship and archery. In 389, however, when Fu Deng was attacking the Later Qin emperor Yao Chang, Yao Chang made a surprise attack against his base Dajie , where Empress Mao had remained, and she, after making a desperate attempt to fight Yao Chang's forces off with her guards, was captured after killing 700 Later Qin soldiers. Yao Chang wanted to make her his concubine, but she, in anger, cried out, "Yao Chang, you murdered the Son of Heaven , and now you want to humiliate the empress. How can heaven and earth still tolerate you?" Yao Chang therefore executed her, along with Fu Deng's sons Fu Bian the Prince of Nan'an and Fu Shang the Prince of Beihai.

Murong Chui

2008-09-09T21:31:00.009-07:00

Murong Chui , courtesy name Daoming , formally Emperor Wucheng of Yan was a great general of the /Xianbei state Former Yan who later became the founding emperor of Later Yan. He was a controversial figure in Chinese history, as his military abilities were plain, but as he was forced to flee Former Yan due to the jealousies of the regent Murong Ping, he was taken in and trusted by the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān, but later betrayed him and established Later Yan, leading to a reputation of him as a traitor. Further, his reputation was damaged in that soon after his death, the Later Yan state suffered great defeats at the hands of Northern Wei Dynasty's founder , leading to the general sense that Murong Chui contributed to the defeats by not building a sound foundation for the empire and by choosing the wrong successor.

During Former Yan

During Murong Hui's and Huang's reigns

The future Murong Chui was born in 326, while his father Murong Huang was still the heir apparent to Murong Hui the Duke of Liaodong, a vassal of Jin Dynasty . He was Murong Huang's fifth son. His mother was Consort Lan, a concubine of Murong Huang. In his youth, he greatly impressed his father with his talent, and his father, sometime after succeeding his grandfather as the Duke of Liaodong in 333, wanted to make him the heir apparent. The officials advised against the action , and Murong Huang agreed and made Murong Jun heir apparent, but still favored him greatly and officially named him Murong Ba . Because of this, Murong Jun was very jealous of his younger brother.

Murong Ba became a general for his father early, after his father claimed the title of Prince of Yan and established Former Yan, although nominally still being a Jin vassal. In 344, for his contribution in the conquest of the Yuwen tribe, Murong Ba was created the Marquess of Duxiang. Later, Murong Ba was posted to the border with the powerful rival Later Zhao, whose general Deng Heng was charged with looking for opportunities to conquer Former Yan, and Murong Ba resisted Deng successfully, causing Deng to be unable to launch a campaign. It was during these years that once, on a hunt, he fell off a horse and lost one of his teeth. After Murong Jun succeeded Murong Huang in 348, because he was still jealous of Murong Ba, he renamed Murong Ba -- to Murong Que , but soon found out that ''Que'' is a character signifying fortune in prophecies, and therefore again renamed him to Murong Chui, the name that he would be known later by.

During Murong Jun's reign

Soon after Murong Jun succeeded Murong Huang, the powerful rival to the south, Later Zhao, collapsed after the death of Shi Hu, as Shi Hu's sons and adoptive grandson Shi Min engaged in an internecine struggle. Despite the turmoil, Murong Jun was initially hesitant to march south to take over Later Zhao territory, but Murong Chui persuaded him that the opportunity was ripe. With Murong Chui as one of the major generals, Murong Jun advanced south and, after capturing and executing Ran Min in 352, took over the eastern half of former Later Zhao territory. During the next few years, Murong Chui participated in subduing many former Later Zhao generals who were still remaining semi-independent. In winter 352, Murong Jun formally declared himself independent from Jin, as emperor, and in 354, when creating many of his sons, brothers, and uncles princes, he created Murong Chui the Prince of Wu.

However, Murong Jun continued to be jealous of Murong Chui's talents. He briefly made Murong Chui the defender of the important city and former capital Longcheng , but after it became clear that Murong Chui was ruling the region successfully and garnered the support of the people, Murong Jun became fearful and recalled him to the new capital Yecheng .

In 358, Murong Chui would lose his wife to political intrigue. Princess Duan, being the daughter of Duan Mopei and therefore derived from the royal family of tribe, was proud of her bloodline and disrespectful to Murong Jun's wife . Perhaps at Empress Kezuhun's instigation, the eunuch Nie Hao falsely accused Princess Duan of witchcraft. Murong Jun had her and her alleged coconspirator, Murong Chui's assistant Gao Bi , arrested.

Princess Duan and Gao were tortured, but they refused to admit the charges of witchcraft, and because of this the torture was intensified. Murong Chui was saddened by his wife's suffering, and he sent her a message trying to persuade her to end her suffering by admitting to the charge . Princess Duan remarked:

:''I am not fearful of death. However, if I falsely implicate myself, I admit to treason. I would be betraying my ancestors and dragging Your Royal Highness into this disaster. The results are dire, and I will not do this.''

As she was interrogated, Princess Duan replied logically and openly, and Murong Chui was able to avoid being dragged into the case, but she still died in prison, either from the torture or a secret execution.

Murong Chui then married her sister as his new princess. However, after a brief time, Empress Kezuhun ordered that the new Princess Duan be deposed, and she married her sister, the Lady of Chang'an, to Murong Chui as his new princess. Murong Chui did not dare to refuse, but he was displeased, and Empress Kezuhun became even more resentful of him. Because of this, Murong Chui was briefly effectively exiled to be the governor of remote Ping Province . He was only recalled when Murong Jun became ill in 359.

In 360, Murong Jun died. He was succeeded by his son and crown prince Murong Wei, with Murong Jun's younger brother and Murong Chui's older brother Murong Ke the Prince of Taiyuan as regent.

During Murong Wei's reign

During Murong Ke's regency

Unlike Murong Jun, Murong Ke greatly trusted Murong Chui and consulted him on many decisions -- including what to do with Muyu Gen when Muyu Gen conspired against him in 360. Later that year, he also sent Murong Chui to pacify southern provinces which became disturbant in light of Murong Jun's death. In 365, he assisted Murong Ke in capturing the important Jin city of Luoyang, and after doing so became the commander of the southern armies, defending against possible Jin counterattacks.

In 367, Murong Ke grew ill, and on his deathbed he advised Murong Wei to let Murong Chui succeed him. He also tried to convince Murong Wei's older brother Murong Zang the Prince of Le'an and his own uncle and co-regent Murong Ping the Prince of Shangyong of the wisdom of giving at least the post of commander of the armies to Murong Chui. However, after Murong Ke's death later that year, Murong Ping and Empress Dowager Kezuhun disagreed with his advice, and Murong Ping became regent while the commander of the armies post was given to Murong Wei's brother Murong Chong the Prince of Zhongshan.

During Murong Ping's regency

Neither Murong Ping nor Empress Dowager Kezuhun trusted Murong Chui, and he was not given important responsibilities. In 368, when four dukes of the rival Former Qin rebelled against its emperor Fu Jiān, Murong Chui was one of the advocates for assisting the four dukes, who sought Former Yan assistance, and further taking the opportunity to conquer Former Qin. However, Murong Ping declined to do so, and Former Qin was able to capture and execute the four dukes.

In 369, the Jin general Huan Wen launched a major attack against Former Yan, defeating each Former Yan army sent against him and advancing all the way to Fangtou , near Yecheng. Murong Wei and Murong Ping panicked and considered fleeing to the former capital Longcheng. However, Murong Chui volunteered to make one last stand against Huan Wen, and he and his brother Murong De were able to deal Huan a major defeat. Relief forces from Former Qin then arrived, and together they dealt Huan another major defeat, ending Huan's hopes of destroying Former Yan.

However, both Murong Ping and Empress Kezuhun grew even more jealous of Murong Chui after his victory and denied his soldiers the rewards that he requested. Murong Ping and Empress Kezuhun further considered executing him. Murong Ke's son Murong Kai and Murong Chui's uncle Lan Jian suggested that he start a coup, but Murong Chui declined. Instead, he accepted his heir apparent Murong Ling 's suggestion, seeking to flee and take over Longcheng in order to try to force reconciliation with the imperial government.

Murong Chui put his plan in motion in winter 369. However, once he left Yecheng, his son Murong Lin, whom he had not favored, fled back to Yecheng to report on him, and Murong Ping sent an army to chase after him. Murong Chui then changed his plan and sought to flee to Former Qin instead. He then scattered his followers and fled back south. On the way, another son Murong Manu wanted to flee back to Yecheng and was killed by him. When he was stopped at the Yellow River, he killed the commander of the guards stopping him, forcing his way to Luoyang, and then fled to Former Qin with the younger Princess Duan, his sons Murong Ling, Murong Bao, Murong Nong, Murong Long, Murong Kai, Lan Jian, and Gao Bi. Princess Kezuhun remained at Yecheng.

During Former Qin

Upon Murong Chui's arrival in Former Qin territory, Fu Jiān, who had long considered conquering Former Yan but feared Murong Chui's military ability, was greatly pleased and exited the capital Chang'an to personally welcome Murong Chui. He created Murong Chui the Marquess of Bintu and greatly honored him, despite misgivings by his prime minister . He also made Murong Chui one of his generals.

Later in 369, after Murong Ping refused to cede the Luoyang region to Former Qin, as Former Yan had promised when seeking Former Qin's aid against Jin, Fu Jiān sent Wang to attack Former Yan. Wang requested that Murong Chui's heir apparent Murong Ling accompany him as a guide. After capturing Luoyang in early 370, Wang bribed Murong Chui's attendant Jin Xi to give Murong Ling a false message that Murong Chui had heard that Empress Dowager Kezuhun had regretted her actions and that, therefore, he was defecting back to Former Yan. Murong Ling, unable to verify either the truth or the falsehood of the message, decided to defect back to Former Yan. Wang immediately accused Murong Ling of treason, and Murong Chui, in fear, fled, but was captured, although Fu Jiān believed that Murong Ling was acting independently and therefore pardoned Murong Chui. Former Yan did not trust Murong Ling and exiled him, and later that year, after he tried to start a rebellion, he was killed in battle after being betrayed by his brother Murong Lin.

Late in 370, after Wang defeated Murong Ping and conquered Former Yan, Murong Chui accompanied Fu Jiān to visit the Former Yan capital Yecheng. Initially, he did not hide his disgust to those officials who failed to support him during the struggle with Murong Ping and Empress Dowager Kezuhun, but at Gao Bi's suggestion, he started to treat them with kindness, with the rebuilding of Yan in mind. Still, in 372, he accused Murong Ping of being the root of Former Yan's destruction and requested that Fu Jiān avenge Former Yan by executing Murong Ping; Fu Jiān did not do so, but effectively exiled Murong Ping by making him the governor of a distant commandery.

In 378, Murong Chui participated in the campaign commanded by Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi against Jin's key city of Xiangyang. In 382, when Fu Jiān wanted to launch a major campaign to destroy Jin and unite China, most officials, including Fu Jiān's brother Fu Rong, who succeeded Wang as prime minister after Wang's death in 375, opposed, but Murong Chui and Yao Chang urged the campaign, and Fu Jiān launched his campaign in fall 383. However, Former Qin forces, commanded by Fu Rong, was defeated by Jin forces at the Battle of Fei River despite great numerical superiority; Fu Rong was killed, and almost the entire army collapsed -- although the forces under Murong Chui's command remained intact, and Fu Jiān, who suffered an arrow wound during the defeat, fled to Murong Chui. Murong Chui's son Murong Bao and brother Murong De both tried to persuade Murong Chui to kill Fu Jiān while he had the power to, but Murong Chui instead returned his forces to Fu Jiān's command and returned to Luoyang with Fu Jiān. However, under suggestion by his son Murong Nong, he planned a rebellion to rebuild Yan.

Murong Chui told Fu Jiān that he was fearful that the people over the Former Yan territory would rebel, and that it would be best if he led a force to pacify the region. Fu Jiān agreed, despite opposition by Quan Yi . Murong Chui took the army and arrived at Yecheng, which was being defended by Fu Pi. They suspected each other, but each ruled out ambushing the other. When the Dingling chief Zhai Bin rebelled and attacked Luoyang, guarded by Fu Pi's younger brother Fu Hui , Fu Pi ordered Murong Chui to put down Zhai's rebellion, and Fu Pi sent his assistant Fu Feilong to serve as Murong Chui's assistant. On the way to Luoyang, however, Murong Chui killed Fu Feilong and his soldiers and prepared to openly rebel. Meanwhile, despite his suspicions of Murong Chui, Fu Pi did not put Murong Chui's son Murong Nong and nephews Murong Kai and Murong Shao under surveillance, and the three fled out of Yecheng and started a rebellion of their own.

In spring 384, Murong Chui, not yet in open rebellion against Former Qin, arrived at Luoyang, but Fu Hui, hearing of Fu Feilong's death, refused to welcome him. Murong Chui then entered into an alliance with Zhai Bin, who urged him to take imperial title. Murong Chui refused at this point but accepted the title of Prince of Yan, formally breaking away from Former Qin and establishing Later Yan.

Reign as Later Yan's emperor

Early reign: rebellion from Former Qin

Immediately, the struggle was on for Murong Chui to capture the territory that was formerly Former Yan's. Both he and Murong Nong quickly captured many cities. Luoyang and Yecheng were isolated. Fu Pi tried to persuade him to stop his rebellion, but he refused, and instead tried to persuade Fu Pi to leave Yecheng with his forces intact; Fu Pi refused, and Murong Chui put Yecheng under siege. With Former Qin now facing further rebellion by Murong Chui's nephews Murong Hong and Murong Chong, and Yao Chang, in the west, Yecheng was not able to receive any reinforcements, but Murong Chui was still unable to capture it quickly. When Zhai Bin, in disappointment over not given a prime ministerial title, considered switching sides again to Former Qin, Murong Chui killed him. Zhai Bin's nephew Zhai Zhen rebelled against Later Yan, and for the next several years, while battling Former Qin remnants, Murong Chui also had to battle Dingling forces under Zhai Zhen and later his cousins Zhai Cheng and Zhai Liao. Briefly during early 385, he also had to battle Jin forces, which had taken most of the territory south of the Yellow River and was in a temporary alliance with Fu Pi. The future of his Later Yan state did not appear particularly bright at this point. However, after moving north to pacify most of modern Hebei, Murong Chui was eventually able to take Yecheng late in 385 when Fu Pi abandoned it and moved west. While isolated pockets of Former Qin resistance remained, by the end of 385 Former Yan was largely in control of the territory north of the Yellow River and east of Taihang Mountains.

Middle reign: entrenchment of Later Yan

Around the new year 386, Murong Chui decided to make Zhongshan , which his nephew Murong Wen the Prince of Lelang had managed to rebuild despite the warfare, his capital. He also claimed the title of emperor.

In 386, , the descendant of the royal house, who had reestablished Dai earlier that year but subsequently claimed the title Prince of Wei but faced internal rebellions and turmoil, submitted to Murong Chui as a vassal and sought Former Yan aid. Murong Chui sent Murong Lin to help him, and Northern Wei was preserved.

In 387, Murong Chui's youngest son Murong Rou , and Murong Bao's sons Murong Sheng and fled back from Western Yan, which had been entrenched in modern Shanxi and whose emperor Murong Yong was a distant relative of Murong Chui's and who thus greatly suspected Murong Rou and his nephews. Later that year, all descendants of Murong Chui and Murong Jun remaining in Western Yan were massacred by Murong Yong.

Later in 387, Murong Chui personally attacked Zhai Liao, who was then occupying Liyang Commandery , and Zhai Liao submitted to him. However, later that year, Zhai Liao rebelled again, and when Zhai Liao made another overture to submit in 388, Murong Chui refused, and Zhai Liao declared himself the "Heavenly Prince" of .

In 388, Murong Chui, at age 62, transferred much of his day-to-day authority to Murong Bao, now his crown prince, only deciding the most important matters personally. He created his now-wife -- the niece of two of his deceased wives -- empress.

Late reign: deterioration of the state

In 391, an incident that would have terrible consequences occurred to lead to the break of relations between Later Yan and Northern Wei. That year, Tuoba Gui sent his brother Tuoba Gu to Later Yan to offer tribute, and Murong Chui's sons detained Tuoba Gu and ordered Tuoba Gui to offer horses to trade for Tuoba Gu's freedom. Tuoba Gui refused and broke off relations with Later Yan, instead entering into an alliance with Western Yan.

In 392, after Zhai Liao's and successor son Zhai Zhao attacked Later Yan's border region, Murong Chui personally led an army against Zhai Zhao's capital Huatai . Zhai sought aid from Western Yan, but Murong Yong declined to send a relief force, and Murong Chui quickly crossed the Yellow River and captured Huatai, conquering Zhai's Wei state.

In winter 393, Murong Chui turned his attention to Western Yan. After leading Murong Yong to believe that he would attack Western Yan's capital Zhangzi through Taihang Pass , he instead surprised Western Yan by attacking through Tianjing Pass , quickly advancing on Zhangzi and began besieging it. Murong Yong sought aid from Jin and Northern Wei, but before Jin and Northern Wei forces could arrive, Murong Chui captured Zhangzi, killing Murong Yong and annexing Western Yan territory into Later Yan.

In 395, in response to Northern Wei's continuous pillaging of the border region, Murong Chui sent Murong Bao, Murong Nong, Murong Lin, Murong De, and Murong Shao to lead a 90,000+-men army in a punitive expedition against Northern Wei, with Murong Bao in command. Tuoba Gui withdrew his forces out of his capital Shengle to the west of the Yellow River. Murong Bao's forces gave chase and eventually became worn out, and Tuoba Gui announced false rumors that Murong Chui had died, causing the soldiers to become worried. Meanwhile, some of Murong Lin's supporters considered a coup to support Murong Lin as emperor, and while Murong Lin himself was not involved, mutual suspicions emerged. Murong Bao therefore decided to retreat, not realizing that Tuoba Gui was shadowing his army in the dark winter cold. In deep winter 395, Northern Wei forces ambushed the unsuspecting Later Yan forces at the Battle of Canhe Slope, killing many soldiers but capturing the most. Murong Bao and a number of his generals were able to flee. Initially, Tuoba Gui was going to release the Later Yan soldiers to show generosity, but at Kepin Jian 's warning that this would permit Later Yan to rebuild its army quickly, slaughtered the captured Later Yan soldiers.

Murong Bao was humiliated and urged Murong Chui to launch another campaign against Northern Wei, and Murong De also urged Murong Chui to do so. He therefore summoned his son Murong Long the Prince of Gaoyang and grandson Murong Sheng back to the capital Zhongshan with reinforcements from the northern part of the empire, ready to launch another attack against Northern Wei in 396. Murong Chui then launched the attack, quickly capturing Northern Wei's important city Pingcheng and aimed for Shengle, and Tuoba Gui, in panic, considered abandoning Shengle again. When Murong Chui led his army through the Canhe Slope, however, the soldiers saw the bodies of the dead soldiers and began to cry bitterly, and Murong Chui became so enraged and embarrassed that he grew extremely ill. In response, the Later Yan forces began to withdraw, and on the way back to Zhongshan, Murong Chui died at Shanggu . His death was not announced until the army reached Zhongshan, however, and he was buried with imperial honors. Murong Bao succeeded him, but in less a year most of Later Yan would fall into Northern Wei's hands.

Era names

* ''Yanwang'' 384-386
* ''Jianxing'' 386-396

Personal information

* Father
** Murong Huang
* Mother
** Consort Lan, posthumously honored as Empress Wenzhao
* Wives
** , daughter of Duan Mopei , posthumously honored as Empress Chengzhao, mother of Heir Apparent Ling and Crown Prince Bao
** Princess Kezuhun , sister of , wife of Murong Jun
** Princess Duan , the sister of the first Princess Duan
** Empress Duan Yuanfei , niece of Princesses Duan, mother of Princes Lang and Jian
* Major Concubines
** , mother of Prince Xi
* Children
** Murong Ling or Murong Quan , the heir apparent , posthumously honored the Emperor Xianzhuang by his nephew Murong Sheng
** Murong Bao , the Crown Prince , later Emperor Huimin
** Murong Manu
** Murong Nong , Prince Huanlie of Liaoxi
** Murong Long , Prince Kang of Gaoyang
** Murong Lin , the Prince of Zhao
** Murong Rou , the Prince of Yangping
** Murong Xi , the Prince of Hejian , later Emperor Zhaowen
** Murong Lang , the Prince of Bohai
** Murong Jian , the Prince of Boling
** Murong Wonu , the Prince of Luyang

Murong Wei

2008-09-09T21:31:00.007-07:00

Murong Wei , courtesy name Jingmao , formally Emperor You of Yan was the last emperor of the /Xianbei state Former Yan. He became emperor at age 10 and, late in his reign, with powers in the hands of his mother and his incompetent and corrupt granduncle Murong Ping, was captured by Former Qin's prime minister in 370, ending Former Yan. Later, during the middle of Former Qin's collapse after its defeat at the Battle of Fei River in 383, he tried to join his brother Murong Chong in rebellion and was executed by Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān in early 385.

Early life

Murong Wei was born in 350, during the reign of his father Murong Jun, one year before he claimed the title of emperor. His mother was Murong Jun's wife . At that time, his older brother Murong Ye was the crown prince. In 354, he was created the Prince of Zhongshan.

In 356, Murong Ye, who was considered an able crown prince, died. In 357, Murong Jun created the seven-year-old Murong Wei crown prince to replace Murong Ye, probably because Murong Wei was born of Empress Kezuhun, as he had other sons who were older. In 359, at an imperial feast, Murong Jun remembered Crown Prince Ye and was weeping. One of Murong Ye's prior subordinates, Li Ji , gave a thorough praise of Murong Ye's eight virtues. Murong Jun then asked him what his opinion was of Murong Wei, and Li gave this response:

:''The Crown Prince has talent given by Heaven, and is complete in his eight virtues. However, he has two shortcomings that he needs to self-examine: his overindulgence in hunting and music. Both of these have harm for the state.''

Murong Wei, who was also present and was told by Murong Jun to review himself, bore grudges from Li from this point on.

In early 360, Murong Jun grew ill, and because Murong Wei was still just a child, he offered the throne to his able brother Murong Ke the Prince of Taiyuan. However, Murong Ke declined and persuaded Murong Jun that he would be able to also ably assist the young emperor. Murong Jun therefore entrusted Murong Wei to Murong Ke, his uncle Murong Ping, Yang Mu , and Muyu Gen , but with Murong Ke in the role of regent. He died soon after, and Murong Wei succeeded him.

Regency of Murong Ke

Muyu Gen, a senior official, was unhappy to be subordinate to Murong Ke, and he soon falsely informed Murong Wei and his mother Empress Dowager Kezuhun that Murong Ke and Murong Ping were planning a rebellion and asked for authorization to attack them. Empress Dowager Kezuhun believed him, but Murong Wei did not and refused to authorize his actions. Murong Ke soon found out, and executed Muyu and his clan.

Murong Ke was an able regent in both governance and military matters, and Former Yan's territorial expansion continued gradually during his regency, largely at 's expense. Murong Ke made all major decisions, but when he tried to promote Li Ji, Murong Wei refused, stating "Uncle, you can rule on every important matter of state, but I i will rule on Li" -- and sent Li out of the capital to be a commandery governor as a form of exile. Li died in distress.

In 361, a magician that Murong Wei favored, Ding Jin , tried to flatter Murong Ke by persuading him to kill Murong Ping. Murong Ke got angry and, despite Murong Wei's favor for him, executed him.

In 365, Murong Ke captured the important city Luoyang from Jin.

In 366, Murong Ke and Murong Ping offered to resign their posts and return all authority to Murong Wei. Murong Wei declined.

In 367, Murong Ke grew ill, and on his deathbed, he recommended that Murong Wei give great responsibilities to another uncle of Murong Wei, Murong Chui the Prince of Wu. However, Murong Ping, who was jealous of Murong Chui's talents, and Empress Dowager Kezuhun, who had personal grudges against Murong Chui, did not agree, and Murong Ping became regent instead, with some of the military responsibilities transferred to Murong Wei's younger brother Murong Chong the Prince of Zhongshan instead.

Regency of Murong Ping

Murong Ping was far less able than Murong Ke, and he was corrupt. Upon hearing about Murong Ke's death, the rival Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān began considering plans to conquer Former Yan.

Soon, however, Former Yan would apparently have a good chance to conquer Former Qin. In winter 367, Fu Jian's brother Fu Shuang the Duke of Zhao, and cousins Fu Sou the Duke of Wei, Fu Liu the Duke of Jin, and Fu Wu the Prince of Yan, rebelled and requested Former Yan resistance, offering to submit to Former Yan. As Fu Sou held the important gateway city of Shancheng , this opened up the center of Former Qin to Former Yan. However, Murong Ping refused to act, and in late 368, Fu Jiān defeated the four rebel dukes.

In 368 as well, the key official Yue Wan , concerned about the growing corrupt practice by noble families of putting commoners into their fiefs -- a practice that would mean that those commoners were only responsible to them, not responsible for paying taxes to the empire, leading to the empire's treasury being so lacking that it was unable to pay its officials -- petitioned Murong Wei for a reform ending the practice. Murong Wei approved the reform and put Yue in charge of it, and Yue restored over 200,000 people to the tax-paying ranks. The nobles were all resentful of Yue, who died later in 368 -- and while most historians believed that he died of natural causes, having been already ill previously -- ''Jin Shu'' stated that he was assassinated by Murong Ping, who had much to lose from Yue' reform.

In 369, probably at his mother's instigation, Murong Wei married the of her cousin Kezuhun Yi as his empress.

Later that year, the Jin general Huan Wen launched a major attack against Former Yan, reaching Fangtou , in the vicinity of Former Yan's capital , defeating every army that Former Yan sent against him, including a major one led by Murong Wei's older brother Murong Zang the Prince of Le'an. Murong Wei and Murong Ping panicked and wanted to abandon Yecheng to flee back to the old capital Helong . Murong Chui volunteered, however, to make one last try at resistance, and was put in charge of the army. Meanwhile, Murong Wei also sent a messenger to Former Qin to request assistance, promising to cede the Luoyang region to Former Qin in exchange for assistance. Murong Chui and another uncle of Murong Wei, Murong De the Prince of Fanyang, soon dealt Huan a major defeat, and Former Qin forces arrived as well, dealing Huan another defeat.

However, Murong Ping and Empress Dowager Kezuhun soon engaged in two damaging decisions. Still resentful of Murong Chui , Empress Dowager Kezuhun denied him and his soldiers rewards and in fact considered killing him, a decision that Murong Ping concurred in because he was also apprehensive of Murong Chui. Murong Chui, hearing the news, fled to Former Qin and became a general for Fu Jiān. They also refused to cede the Luoyang region to Former Qin, as previously promised. In anger, late in 369, Fu Jian sent a 60,000-men force, commanded by his prime minister , against Former Yan.

In spring 370, Wang first advanced on Luoyang and forced its surrender. He then advanced on Hu Pass , defeating all Former Yan resistance on the way. He then captured Jinyang . Murong Ping led a 300,000-men strong force against Wang, but apprehensive of Wang, he stopped at Lu River . Wang soon arrived to prepare to face off against him. Murong Wei became confident, however, that Wang would be defeated by sheer numbers, and did not appear concerned.

Meanwhile, Murong Ping made the worst display of his corruption at this time -- keeping guards at forests and streams, disallowing commoners and even his own soldiers from cutting firewood or fishing unless they paid a usage fee in either money or silk. He soon had a stash of wealth, but completely lost the morale of his soldiers. Murong Wei, hearing this, sent a messenger to rebuke him and ordering him to distribute the wealth to the soldiers, but the damage was done. In winter 370, the armies engaged, and despite the numerical advantage that Murong Ping had, Wang crushed him, and Murong Ping fled back to Yecheng by himself.

Murong Wei, along with his brothers, abandoned Yecheng, intended to flee back to Helong. However, once he got out of the capital, his guards largely abandoned him, and the few faithful guards who remained were soon killed by bandits. Former Qin forces then arrived and captured him and delivered him to Fu Jiān. Fu Jiān released him but had him formally surrender with his officials, ending Former Yan.

After Former Yan's fall

Murong Wei was relocated with most of his clan to the Former Qin capital Chang'an. Fu Jiān created him the Marquess of Xinxing and made him a general. In 378, he participated in the campaign of Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi in sieging Jin's important border city Xiangyang. In 383, he also participated in Fu Jiān's massive campaign against Jin, through which Fu Jiān hoped to destroy Jin finally and unite China. After the defeat at the Battle of Fei River, however, Fu Jiān's forces collapsed, and, after Murong Chui, at that time, declined to start an uprising to reestablish Yan, Murong De tried to persuade Murong Wei to do so, but Murong Wei declined as well and accompanied Fu Jiān back to Chang'an.

In spirng 384, however, Murong Chui would in fact start an uprising in the eastern empire , and soon was joined by many former Former Yan nobles and officials in establishing Later Yan. Upon hearing this, Murong Wei's brothers Murong Hong and Murong Chong also rose in rebellion near Chang'an. Murong Hong sent a messenger demanding that Fu Jiān send Murong Wei to him -- offering to leave the Guanzhong region if Murong Wei were released. Fu Jiān became angry and rebuked Murong Wei, and Murong Wei pled and promised to continue to be a faithful subject. Fu Jiān allowed him to remain his in post, but Murong Wei, whom Fu Jiān told to write letters to Murong Chui, Murong Hong, and Murong Chong, ordering their surrender, instead secretly sent a message to Murong Hong, in which he stated:

:''I am a man within an iron cage, and there is no reason for me not to die. Further, I also sinned against Yan, and you should not mind me. You should earnestly seek to establish yourself.''

Murong Hong was soon assassinated, however, and Murong Chong became the leader of the Xianbei rebels who would eventually be known as Western Yan. He put Chang'an under a siege and demanded that Fu Jiān deliver Murong Wei to him. Meanwhile, Murong Wei and his cousin Murong Su organized the Xianbei men within Chang'an, preparing to start an uprising to join Murong Chong. In early 385, Murong Wei invited Fu Jiān to his house, under the pretense that his son was getting married, ready to assassinate Fu Jiān at the feast. Fu Jiān agreed to attend, but could not go due to rain, and news of the conspiracy leaked. Fu Jiān summoned Murong Wei and Murong Su to the palace. Murong Su suggested that they refuse and immediately start the uprising. Murong Wei refused, and both went ot the palace. Fu Jiān questioned them about their conspiracy, and Murong Wei still tried to deny, but Murong Su, with proud words, admitted, and Fu Jiān executed them, as well as all remaining Xianbei people in the city.

Era name

* ''Jianxi'' 360-370

Personal information

* Father
** Murong Jun
* Mother
**
* Wife
** , daughter of his mother's cousin Kezuhun Yi

Qifu Gangui

2008-09-09T21:31:00.005-07:00

Qifu Gangui or Qifu Qiangui , formally Prince Wuyuan of Henan , was a prince of the /Xianbei state Western Qin. He was a brother of the founding prince, Qifu Guoren , who became prince after Qifu Guoren's death in 388 because Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu was considered too young for leadership. He subsequently expanded the state's power and influence, but only to an extent, and in 400 after military losses to Later Qin, his state was annexed by Later Qin and he himself became a Later Qin general. However, after Later Qin was weakened by defeats at the hands of its rebel general Liu Bobo's state, Qifu Gangui redeclared independence in 409, but ruled only three more years before he was killed by Qifu Gongfu in a coup. His son Qifu Chipan defeated Qifu Gongfu and succeeded him as prince.

Qifu Gangui was known for using military strategies designed to expose weaknesses and to mislead enemies into acting in an overly dangerous manner, and then strike when the enemy became overconfident.

Early life

The first reference to Qifu Gangui in history was in 385, when his brother Qifu Guoren declared himself ''Chanyu'' and changed era name, thus signifying independence from Former Qin. At that time, Qifu Guoren named Qifu Gangui a major general. Nothing else is known about his life before or during Qifu Guoren's reign, other than an implied reference that he defeated the Former Qin general Wang Guang in battle.

In 388, Qifu Guoren died. His son Qifu Gongfu was considered too young to take over the leadership, and the officials and generals supported Qifu Gangui to succeed Qifu Guoren, with the titles ''Grand Chanyu'' and Prince of Henan.

First reign

Qifu Gangui created his wife princess, and he also established a governmental structure designed similarly to a Han Chinese governmental structure. Over the next several years, Qifu Gangui used a variety of military and diplomatic pressure to get the various people around his -- including people of Xianbei, Qiang, and Han ethnicities, to submit to him. Later in the year, he moved the capital from Yongshi to Jincheng .

In 389, the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng, to whom Qifu Guoren had nominally submitted asa vassal, created Qifu Gangui the Prince of Jincheng -- a title that signified less dominion than his original title of Prince of Henan, because Jincheng Commandery only roughly corresponded to modern Lanzhou -- but Qifu Gangui accepted the title.

In 390, the of Tuyuhun, Murong Shilian , submitted to Western Qin as a vassal, and Qifu Gangui created him the Prince of Bailan. However, after Murong Shilian died later that year and was succeeded by his more ambitious son Murong Shipi , Murong Shipi rejected that title.

In 391, Qifu Gangui's general Yuezhi Jiegui rebelled, but after Qifu Gangui personally led an army against him, Yuezhi surrendered -- and Qifu Gangui married the daughter of a clansman to Yuezhi, showing Qifu Gangui's tendency to try to personally connect with tribal chiefs to get them to submit to him. However, later 391, the strategy could have said to have backfired as the tribal chief Mo Yigan initially submitted and sent two sons as hostages to him, seeking his aid in a campaign against another tribal chief, Da Dou . Qifu Gangui aided him and defeated Da in battle, and then sent Mo's sons back to him, to try to get Mo to be more grateful of him. However, Mo instead turned against Qifu Gangui and aligned himself with the Xiongnu chief Liu Weichen , and Qifu Gangui, in anger, attacked Mo and, in battle, fired an arrow that struck Mo's eye. During the campaign against Mo, however, Lü Guang the prince of Later Liang took this opportunity to attack Western Qin, forcing Qifu Gangui to withdraw to face him. This incident appeared to start several years of intermittent battles between Western Qin and Later Liang.

In 393, Qifu Gangui created his son Qifu Chipan as crown prince.

In 394, after the death of the Later Qin emperor Yao Chang, Fu Deng prepared a major offensive against Yao Chang's son and successor Yao Xing, and as part of the preparation he requested aid from Qifu Gangui and created Qifu Gangui the Prince of Henan and bestowed on him the nine bestowments. However, Fu Deng's campaign ended in failure, as his forces were defeated by Yao Xing's, and his brother Fu Guang and son Fu Chong abandoned his bases, forcing him to flee into the mountains. He then married his sister the to Qifu Gangui as his princess and created him the Prince of Liang. Qifu Gangui sent his brother Qifu Yizhou to aid Fu Deng, but as Fu Deng came out of the mountains to join Qifu Yizhou's forces, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him. Qifu Yizhou then withdrew.

Fu Deng's son Fu Chong fled to Huangzhong , then under Qifu Gangui's control, and claimed imperial title. However, in winter 394, Qifu Gangui expelled him, and he fled to one of his father's last remaining generals, Yang Ding the Prince of Longxi. Yang led his forces to join Fu Chong's to attack Qifu Gangui. Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Yizhou and two other generals, Qifu Ketan and Yuezhi Jiegui against Yang and Fu Chong, and Yang was initially successful against Qifu Yizhou. However, the three Western Qin generals then counterattacked and killed Yang and Fu Chong in battle.

Around the new year 395, Qifu Gangui claimed the title Prince of Qin -- a greater title that implicitly made himself a rival of Later Qin, and the state thus became known in history as Western Qin. In the summer, he sent Qifu Yizhou to attack the unsubmitting chief Jiang Ru , despite warnings that Qifu Yizhou had become arrogant from his victories. Qifu Yizhou indeed became unattentive and was defeated by Jiang. Later in the year, Qifu Gangui moved his capital from Jincheng to Xicheng .

In fall 395, Lü Guang made a major attack on Western Qin. Under the advice of his officials Mi Guizhou and Mozhe Gudi , Qifu Gangui submitted to Lü Guang as a vassal and sent his son Qifu Chibo as a hostage to Lü Guang, and Lü Guang withdrew. However, Qifu Gangui soon regretted this arrangement and executed Mi and Mozhe.

In 397, determined to punish Qifu Gangui, Lü Guang launched a major attack against Xicheng . This frightened Qifu Gangui's officials enough that they recommended a retreat to Chengji to the east, but Qifu Gangui, seeing weaknesses in Later Liang's forces despite their numbers, stood his ground. Later Liang forces were initially successful, capturing several major Western Qin cities, but Qifu Gangui tricked Lü Guang's brother and major general Lü Yan the Duke of Tianshui into believing that he was retreating, and Lü Yan fell into a trap Qifu Gangui set and was killed. Lü Guang, in fear, withdrew to his capital Guzang . In 398, Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Yizhou to attack Later Liang, and he recovered some of the territory previously lost.

Later in 398, Qifu Yizhou battled Murong Shipi and defeated him. Murong Shipi, in fear, sent his son Murong Dangqi as a hostage and sought peace. Qifu Gangui married the daughter of a clansman to Qifu Dangqi.

In 400, Qifu Gangui moved his capital from Xicheng to Wanchuan .

In summer 400, Later Qin's general, Yao Xing's uncle Yao Shuode launched a major attack against Western Qin. Initially, Qifu Gangui was successful in cutting off Yao Shuode's supply line, but Yao Xing then personally came to Yao Shuode's aid. Qifu Gangui divided his army to try to ascertain Later Qin's intentions, but the armies lost communication in the fog, and Later Qin attacked them and greatly defeated them, taking nearly the entire Western Qin army captive. Yao Xing advanced to Fuhan , forcing Qifu Gangui to flee back to Jincheng. With his army lost, however, Qifu Gangui concluded that he could not sustain a state any more, and instructed his officials to surrender to Later Qin, while he himself surrendered to Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, who welcomed him as an honored guest. Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan suspected Qifu Gangui's intentions, and suggested that Tufa Lilugu exile him to the Yifu tribe , a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected. However, worried that Qifu Gangui would try to reestablish his state, he sent an army to watch over him. Qifu Gangui, fearing that he would be executed, then regained trust from Tufa Lilugu by sending Qifu Chipan, his brothers, and their mother to the Southern Liang capital Xiping as hostages. He himself, however, as soon as the Southern Liang guard was down, fled to Fuhan and surrendered to Later Qin.

As Later Qin general

Upon Qifu Gangui's arrival in the Later Qin capital Chang'an, Yao Xing created him the Marquess of Guiyi. In 401, Yao Xing inexplicably gave Qifu Gangui his entire captured army back to him and had him defend his old capital Wanchuan, effectively putting him back in the position he had before, but now as a Later Qin vassal. He quickly put his governmental structure back in place, but now with inferior titles to show submission to Later Qin. Later in 401, Yao Xing sent Qifu Gangui to serve as Yao Shuode's assistant in a major campaign against Later Yang's emperor Lü Long , forcing Lü Long's submission.

In 402, Qifu Chipan, who had previously made an unsuccessful attempt to escape from Southern Liang to join his father, succeeded in fleeing to Wanchuan. The Southern Liang prince Tufa Rutan sent Qifu Chipan's wife and children to join him.

In 403, Lü Long decided to give up his state to Later Qin, ending Later Liang, and Qifu Gangui was one of the generals whom Yao Xing sent to escort Lü Long to Chang'an and to escort his replacement, the Later Qin general Wang Shang to Guzang, which was at the point effectively surrounded by Southern Liang and Northern Liang forces.

For the next few years, Qifu Gangui appeared to begin to act more independently again. For example, in 405, apparently without Later Qin sanction, he attacked Murong Dahai , the khan of Tuyuhun, and later in the year he battled fellow Later Qin vassal Yang Sheng , the ruler of Chouchi.

Around the new year 407, Qifu Gangui went on an official visit to Chang'an. Yao Xing, apprehensive about Qifu Gangui's strength and independence, detained him and made him a minister, giving his command to Qifu Chipan.

In 408, with Tufa Rutan, who had previously submitted as a Later Qin vassal, acting independently but yet suffering many internal problems, Yao Xing became resolved to destroy Southern Liang, and Qifu Gangui was one of the generals he sent under the command of his son Yao Bi to try to destroy Southern Liang. However, Yao Bi's campaign resulted in failure, and while Tufa Rutan nominally continued to submit for a time, he soon declared full independence. In 409, Qifu Gangui himself escaped and returned to Wanchuan. Later in the year, he redeclared the Western Qin state with the title Prince of Qin and changed his era name.

Second reign

After his restoration, Qifu Gangui again created his wife Princess Bian as princess and Qifu Chipan as crown prince, and he temporarily set his capital at Dujianshan . In 410, he attacked Later Qin's Jincheng Commandery and captured it, and later in 410 moved the capital back to Wanchuan. He then captured several more Later Qin commanderies. However, in spring 411, he returned the captured officials to Later Qin and sought peace, offering to again submit as a vassal. Yao Xing created him the Prince of Henan. However, in winter 411 he again captured several Later Qin commanderies. In spring 412, he moved the capital to Tanjiao , and left Qifu Chipan in charge of Wanchuan.

In summer 412, Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu killed Qifu Gangui in a coup and also killed more than 10 of Qifu Gangui's sons. After a short campaign between Qifu Gongfu and Qifu Chipan, Qifu Chipan succeeded and killed Qifu Gongfu. He took the throne as Prince Wenzhao.

Era names

* ''Taichu'' 388-400
* ''Gengshi'' 409-412

Personal information

* Father
** Qifu Sifan , Xianbei tribal chief
* Wives
**
**
* Children
** Qifu Chipan , the Crown Prince and the Duke of Pingchang, later Prince Wenzhao
** Qifu Chibo
** Qifu Muyigan
** Qifu Shenqian
** Qifu Zhida
** Qifu Tanda
** Qifu Louji
** Qifu Qiannian
** Qifu Woling
** Qifu Shiyin
** Qifu Baiyang
** Qifu Qulie
** Princess Pingchang, wife of Juqu Xingguo , the heir apparent of Juqu Mengxun, the prince of Northern Liang

Qifu Guoren

2008-09-09T21:31:00.003-07:00

Qifu Guoren , formally Prince Xuanlie of Wanchuan , was the founding ruler of the /Xianbei state Western Qin.

Qifu Guoren's father Qifu Sifan was a Xianbei tribal chief in the modern southern/southwestern Gansu region who, after being defeated by the Former Qin general Wang Tong , surrendered in 371 and was allowed to keep his tribe together as a Former Qin vassal. In 376, Qifu Sifan died, and Qifu Guoren succeeded him. When the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān sought to conquer Jin Dynasty to unite China in 383, Qifu Guoren was initially going to serve as a general in his advance troops, but at that time, Qifu Guoren's uncle Qifu Butui rebelled, and Fu Jiān sent Qifu Guoren to put down his uncle's rebellion. Instead, Qifu Guoren and Qifu Butui joined forces, and Qifu Guoren declared that Former Qin had worn out its people and that he was establishing an independent state -- although at that time he did not take any regal title or declare a new era name.

In 385, after hearing about Fu Jiān's death at the hands of another rebel general, Yao Chang , Qifu Guoren did declare himself chanyu and changed the era name, thus effectively declaring a break from Former Qin, and thus this date was typically considered the founding date of Western Qin. He divided his domain into 12 commanderies, and he established his capital at Yongshicheng . Over the next two years, he gradually drew the Xianbei and other ethnicities into his state.

In 387, however, contrary to his prior stance against Former Qin, Qifu Guoren accepted the title of Prince of Wanchuan bestowed on him by the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng and nominally became a Former Qin vassal again, although he did not use the Former Qin era name.

In summer 388, Qifu Guoren died. His son Qifu Gongfu was still young, and his subordinates supported his brother Qifu Gangui to succeed him.

Era name

* ''Jianyi'' 385-388

Personal information

* Father
** Qifu Sifan , Xianbei tribal chief
* Children
** Qifu Gongfu
** Qifu Achai

Wang Meng (Former Qin)

2008-09-09T21:31:00.001-07:00

Wang Meng , courtesy name Jinglüe , formally Marquess Wu of Qinghe , served as prime minister to the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān in the fourth century. Under his governance, Fu Jiān's empire expanded from encompassing only most of Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, and extreme western Shanxi and Henan, to covering nearly all of then-Chinese territory north of the Huai River and the southwest. He is commonly regarded as one of the greatest statesmen in Chinese history.

Early life

Wang Meng, ethnically , was poor in his youth, when he lived in the Later Zhao capital , and he made a living by making bamboo grain containers for shreshing. Despite his intelligence, his talents were not discovered by Later Zhao officials. The intelligentsia also largely refused to associate with him, since he was unkempt in his appearance. He later became a hermit at Huayin Mountain, in the territory of Former Qin, ruled by the Fu clan, after Later Zhao's collapse.

When the general Huan Wen made a major attack on Former Qin in 354 and reached all the way to Ba River , in the vicinity of Former Qin's capital Chang'an. Wang went to meet Huan. Wang, as unkempt as he was, was using his hand to slap at fleas and ticks during the conversation, but impressed Huan with his knowledge and tactics. Huan then asked him why the people of the Qin lands were not shifting their allegiance to Jin, and Wang pointed out that the people were not sure what Huan's intentions were, given that he hesitated at crossing the Ba River. As the situation stalemated, Huan began to run out of food supplies and was forced to withdraw. He invited Wang to withdraw with him, but Wang declined, apparently believing that Huan was not the right person to follow.

After Fu Sheng, the son of Former Qin's founding emperor Fu Jiàn, became emperor in 355, he ruled the empire with stern cruelty and arbitrariness, slaughtering officials and nobles at will. His cousin Fu Jiān the Prince of Donghai feared that he would be the next target, and secretly plotted with a number of people. At Lü Polou 's suggestion, Fu Jiān met Wang, and they became friends immediately, and Fu Jiān compared their meeting to Liu Bei's meeting of Zhuge Liang.

In 337, after finding out that Fu Sheng was ready to kill him and his brother Fu Fa the Prince of Qinghe, Fu Jiān acted preemptively, overthrowing and killing Fu Sheng. He assumed the throne under the title "Heavenly Prince" , and he made Wang one of his key advisors, along with his brothers Fu Fa and Fu Rong, his son Fu Pi, and his mother Empress Dowager Gou's lover Li Wei .

Early career

Under Li's suggestion, however, Fu Jiān increasingly entrusted greater and greater responsibility to Wang, and Wang handled the responsibility capably. When he got into a conflict of words with the general Fan Shi , angering Fan so much that Fan physically attacked him, Fu put Fan to death. Wang was named the mayor of Chang'an in 359, and quickly arrested and executed the founding emperor Fu Jiàn's brother-in-law Qiang De , who had previously robbed the people of possessions and children unpunished. Quickly, the noble families curbed their behavior, and social order was well-established, in Chang'an. Late that year, Fu Jiān promoted him to prime minister, despite his initial refusal and recommendation of Fu Rong for that post.

Wang Meng, as prime minister, organized the Former Qin government into a model of efficiency and honesty -- sometimes to the degree of ruthlessness. In 364, for example, after Fu Sheng's brother Fu Teng the Duke of Ru'nan rebelled and was executed, Wang suggested to Fu Jiān that Fu Sheng's four remaining brothers be killed as well, a suggestion that Fu Jiān rejected. Wang also showed military talent, in addition to talent in governance. In 366, for example, Fu Jiān sent him, Yang An , and Yao Chang to make a successful raid against Jin's Jing Province . In 367, Wang also led an army against the warlords Lian Qi and Li Yan , who occupied modern eastern Gansu and who had vacillated between Former Qin and Former Liang. At that time, however, Wang avoided a direct confrontation with Former Liang's ruler Zhang Tianxi, as he negotiated a compromise in dividing Li's territory and followers.

In late 367, Fu Sheng's remaining brothers -- Fu Liu the Duke of Jin, Fu Sou the Duke of Wei, and Fu Wu the Duke of Yan, along with Fu Jiān's brother Fu Shuang the Duke of Zhao, rebelled. Fu Jiān sent separate forces against each of the rebellious dukes, and Wang was sent to attack Fu Liu, whom he defeated easily. Wang then turned his attention against Fu Sou, and eventually, all four dukes were defeated and killed.

In 369, when Huan Wen launched a major attack against Former Yan, the Former Yan emperor Murong Wei and regent Murong Ping panicked and sought assistance from Former Qin, promising to cede the Luoyang region to Former Qin if it rendered assistance. Most Former Qin officials suggested a refusal, but Wang reminded Fu Jiān that if Huan conquered Former Yan and added its territory to Jin's, Former Qin would not be able to stand. Fu Jiān therefore sent a force commanded by Shi Yue to relieve Former Yan, whose general Murong Chui defeated Huan, with Shi's assistance. However, Former Yan refused to cede Luoyang, and Fu Jiān commissioned Wang to lead a 60,000-men force against Former Yan later that year. Wang's campaign seemed even more promising after Murong Chui, fearful of Murong Ping's jealousy and the emperor Murong Wei's mother 's hatred toward him, defected to Former Qin. Fu Jiān greeted Murong Chui with great honors, but Wang distrusted Murong Chui.

In early 370, Wang attacked Luoyang, forcing its surrender. He then carried out a plot to try to put Murong Chui to death -- as he bribed one of Murong Chui's guards Jin Xi into giving Murong Chui's heir apparent Murong Ling , who was serving as Wang's guide, a false message that Murong Chui had heard that Empress Dowager Kezuhun had regretted her actions and that, therefore, he was defecting back to Former Yan. Murong Ling, unable to verify either the truth or the falsehood of the message, decided to defect back to Former Yan. Wang immediately accused Murong Ling of treason, and Murong Chui, in fear, fled, but was captured, although Fu Jiān believed that Murong Ling was acting independently and therefore pardoned Murong Chui.

Wang continued his campaign against Former Yan, and he advanced on Hu Pass , defeating all Former Yan resistance on the way. He then captured Jinyang . Murong Ping led a 300,000-men strong force against Wang, but apprehensive of Wang, he stopped at Lu River . Wang soon arrived to prepare to face off against him. Meanwhile, Murong Ping made the worst display of his corruption at this time -- keeping guards at forests and streams, disallowing commoners and even his own soldiers from cutting firewood or fishing unless they paid a usage fee in either money or silk. He soon had a stash of wealth, but completely lost the morale of his soldiers. Murong Wei, hearing this, sent a messenger to rebuke him and ordering him to distribute the wealth to the soldiers, but the damage was done. In winter 370, the armies engaged, and despite the numerical advantage that Murong Ping had, Wang crushed him, and Murong Ping fled back to the Former Yan capital Yecheng by himself. Murong Wei abandoned Yecheng and tried to flee to the old capital Helong , but was captured on the way. Fu Jiān pardoned him but had him formally surrender with his officials, ending Former Yan.

Late career

Fu Jiān made Wang Meng the viceroy over six provinces -- the former territory of Former Yan. In those six provinces, Wang had full imperial authority, an authority that Wang tried to decline repeatedly, but eventually exercised. In 371, he wrote to Zhang Tianxi and persuaded him to submit to Former Qin authority as a vassal. Later that year, he again tried to decline the responsibilities of viceroy over six provinces, and offered to govern just one province. Fu Jiān refused.

In 372, Fu Jiān summoned Wang back to Chang'an to again be prime minister. Fu Rong succeeded him as viceroy over the six provinces. It was described that during this time, Wang was so capable that Fu Jiān barely had to carry out any duties of his own. Sima Guang had this description of Wang's abilities:

:''Wang was strong in personality and understanding, honest and resolute, clean and solemn, and he understood right and wrong very well. He deposed incompetent officials and promoted the talented people who were hidden in the lower ranks due to their lack of connections. He supervised the people to tend their fields, plant mulberries, and keep silkworms, in addition to strengthening the battle training of the troops. Each official was competent in tasks that he was given. Each penalty fit the evidence of the crime. Therefore, the empire became rich and powerful and undefeatable. It was during this time that Former Qin was a most well-run state.''

In summer 375, Wang grew ill. In order to try to appease the spirits to save Wang's life, Fu Jiān ordered a general pardon. However, by autumn, Wang was near death. On his deathbed, he warned Fu Jiān against campaigns to conquer Jin, and stated that he believed that the Xianbei and the Qiang would create trouble in the future and should be watched against. He then died. His sons Wang Yong and Wang Pi would serve as Former Qin officials, and Wang Yong would eventually be prime minister during the reign of Fu Pi, but was unable to reverse Former Qin's collapse at that time. One of Wang Meng's grandsons, Wang Zhen'e , would later be a Jin general under .

Yao Chang

2008-09-09T21:30:00.004-07:00

Yao Chang , courtesy name Jingmao , formally Emperor Wuzhao of Qin , was the founding emperor of the /Qiang state Later Qin. His father Yao Yizhong had been a powerful general and Qiang chieftain under the Later Zhao emperor Shi Hu, but after Later Zhao's collapse after Shi Hu's horses death, Yao Chang's older brother Yao Xiang tried to start an independent state but was defeated and killed by Former Qin forces. Yao Chang became a Former Qin general, but after an incident in 384 after the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān's defeat at the Battle of Fei River, Yao Chang feared that Fu Jiān would kill him and therefore rebelled. He subsequently captured and killed Fu Jiān, who had saved his life when Yao Xiang was defeated, causing many historians to view him as a traitor and murderer.

Early life

Yao Chang was born in 331, while his father Yao Yizhong , a major Qiang chief, was a general under the Later Zhao emperor Shi Le. He was the 24th of Yao Yizhong's 42 sons. He was described as intelligent and deliberate, but uninterested in detail matters. After Later Zhao's collapse, Yao Yizhong submitted to Jin Dynasty as a vassal, and, after he died in 351, his son Yao Xiang took over his troops and headed south to submit to Jin command. After realizing that the Jin general Yin Hao was greatly suspicious of him, however, Yao Xiang rebelled in 352 and ambushed Yin, and then occupied the cities in the Luoyang region , intending on establishing himself as the ruler of the region. During this time, Yao Chang served as one of his strategists. In a battle in 352, Yao Xiang's horse was killed, and Yao Chang yielded his horse to Yao Xiang -- telling Yao Xiang that as long as he was still alive, the enemy would not dare to touch Yao Chang. However, as they were still discussing, they were rescued by their troops.

However, before Yao Xiang could strengthen his rule over the region, the Jin general Huan Wen attacked him in 356 and defeated him, capturing cities that he held and forcing him to abandon the plans to establish himself in the region. Instead, He was forced to advanced northwest and then west to face Former Qin, ruled by the ethnically- emperor Fu Sheng. In 357, Yao Xiang advanced into Former Qin territory, and a number of Qiang, Xiongnu, and submitted themselves to him. Fu Sheng sent a force commanded by Fu Huangmei , Fu Dao , Fu Jiān, and Deng Qiang to resist him. Initially, Yao Xiang refused to engage them, but after Deng openly insulted him, Yao attacked and fell into a trap and was captured and killed. Yao Chang took over his troops but knew he could not resist, and so surrendered. Initially, Fu Huangmei wanted to execute Yao Chang, but at Fu Jiān's intercession, Yao Chang was spared.

In service of Fu Jiān

In 357, Fu Jiān overthrew the cruel and whimsical Fu Sheng and took the throne himself. Sometime early in his reign, Fu Jiān made Yao Chang a general. The first campaign in which he was mentioned by name was in 366, when he assisted in an attack on Jin's Jing Province . In 367, he again assisted Wang Meng in attacking the rebels in modern eastern Gansu, who were led by the Qiang general Lian Qi , whose subordinates were originally all Yao Yizhong's subordinates and therefore surrendered to him readily. Fu Jiān made him the governor of Longdong Commandery . In 371, he was part of the campaign against Chouchi's ruler Yang Cuan , and in 373, after Former Qin seized the modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and southern Shaanxi from Jin, Yao Chang was made the governor of Ning Province . In 376, Yao Chang also assisted Gou Chang in Former Qin's conquest of Former Liang, and in 378 involved in the sieged against the Jin city Xiangyang . Sometime during Fu Jiān's reign, he created Yao Chang the Marquess of Yidu.

In 383, Fu Jiān prepared a major attack on Jin, intending to destroy it and unite China. Yao Chang was one of the few generals who was in favor of the plan, as the vast majority of Fu Jiān's subordinates opposed, including his brother and prime minister Fu Rong -- who specifically was suspicious of Yao Chang and Murong Chui , neither of whom was of Di ancestry and both of whom favored the attack on Jin. Fu Jiān proceeded with the plan despite Fu Rong's opposition, making Fu Rong the commander of the main invasion force. Yao Chang was put in charge of the armies of the southwest , and as Fu Jiān was handing out the command assignments, he gave Yao Chang the title General Longxiang -- a title that he himself carried previously when he overthrew Fu Sheng -- and he commented, apparently in a jocular tone:

:''Before, I established my rule as the General Longxiang. I do not easily confer this title on others. You should take good care of the title.''

Another general, Dou Chong , immediately objected, stating that it is a bad omen for the emperor to joke, and Fu Jiān grew briefly silent.

Later that year, against the much weaker Jin troops, Fu Rong's forces were nevertheless defeated at the Battle of Fei River -- a battle that Yao Chang was not involved in -- and Fu Rong was killed. In early 384, Murong Chui rebelled in the eastern empire, hoping to reestablish Yan, and upon hearing Murong Chui's rebellion, Murong Chui's nephew Murong Hong rebelled as well, near the Former Qin capital Chang'an. Fu Jiān sent his brother Fu Rui against Murong Hong, assisted by Yao Chang. Yao Chang advocated letting Murong Hong, who was intent on leaving the Guanzhong region to return to his homeland, leave, but the brash Fu Rui insisted on intercepting Murong Hong, and was defeated and killed by Murong Hong. Yao Chang sent messengers Zhao Du and Jiang Xie to report the bad news to Fu Jiān -- and Fu Jiān, inexplicably, executed Zhao and Jiang in anger. Yao Chang became fearful and abandoned his troops, gathered the Qiang of the region, and rebelled himself, claiming the title of "Prince of Qin of 10,000 Years" , thus establishing Later Qin.

As prince

Yao Chang initially opted to keep his troops mobile, as he anticipated Murong Hong's Western Yan forces to siege Chang'an and destroy Former Qin and then depart for their homeland, so that he could take Chang'an without major engagements. In doing this, he hoped to conserve and increase his strength while his rivals battled. He therefore temporarily placed his capital at Beidi , seizing the cities of the modern northern Shaanxi. Despite this, he had periodic battles with Former Qin and Western Yan forces, as Former Qin and Western Yan also battled each other.

In 385, an incident involving the city of Xinping helped to further establish Yao Chang's reputation as wily and treacherous. The people of Xinping had fought extremely hard to preserve their city for Former Qin when Yao Chang first started sieging the city in late 384. Eventually, when Xinping ran out of food supplies and military equipment, Yao Chang assured the governor of Xinping commandery, Gou Fu , that if he yielded the city, he would be allowed to safely lead the people of Xinping to Chang'an. Gou believed him, but as soon as he exited the city with the 5,000 remaining people, Yao Chang surrounded them with his troops and slaughtered them all, with only a single person who escaped.

In fall 385, Fu Jiān abandoned Chang'an, long under siege by Western Yan, and he sought to try to find food supplies. When he arrived at Wujiang Mountain , Yao Chang sent his general Wu Zhong to surround Fu Jiān, eventually capturing him and delivering him to Xinping to be imprisoned there. Yao Chang tried to persuade him to ceremonially pass the throne to him, but Fu Jiān, angry at Yao's betrayal, refused. Later in 385, Yao sent his soldiers to strangle Fu Jiān. Even Later Qin soldiers mourned Fu Jiān, however, and Yao, in order to pretend as if he did not put Fu Jiān to death, posthumously honored him as Heavenly Prince Zhuanglie .

Western Yan forces, under its now-emperor Murong Chong, occupied Chang'an, and Western Yan and Later Qin battled on-and-off. However, the Western Yan people were unhappy that Murong Chong was not leading them back to their homeland in the east, and, in 386, Murong Chong was assassinated in a coup and replaced with Deng Sui, who was then assassinated and replaced with Murong Yi, under whom the Western Yan people abandoned Chang'an and headed east. Briefly, Chang'an was held by the Xiongnu chief Hao Nu , but Yao Chang then advanced on Chang'an, and Hao surrendered. Yao Chang made Chang'an his capital and claimed the title of emperor. He created his wife as empress and his son Yao Xing as crown prince.

As emperor

For the next few years, Yao Chang would not have complete control over the region, as many Di, Qiang, Xiongnu, and Han generals were still remaining semi-independent throughout the region. Further, in 386, a distant member of Former Qin's imperial Fu clan, Fu Deng, rose in modern eastern Gansu to oppose him, and after the death of Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi that year, claimed imperial title and became the main adversary for Yao Chang. Fu Deng used Yao Chang's killing of Fu Jiān to good propaganda effect, and for several years was quite successful in battles against Yao Chang, although the battles were generally inconclusive in their impact, with neither Fu Deng nor Yao Chang being able to decisively defeat the other. However, Yao Chang was able to gradually subdue the other Former Qin generals of the region, taking advantage of Fu Deng's cautiousness. In 387, for example, after the Former Qin general Fu Zuan was killed by his brother Fu Shinu , Yao Chang took the opportunity to quickly advance against Fu Shinu and defeat him, seizing his troops. He also, at the same time, seized the remaining cities held by Western Yan west of the Yellow River.

In 389, after losing several battles to Former Qin, Yao Chang became apprehensive and thought that it was Fu Jiān's spirit aiding Former Qin, so he, following Fu Deng's lead, made an image of Fu Jiān and worshipped it, claiming to it that he had killed Fu Jiān only to avenge Yao Xiang and asking for forgiveness. The image did not help Yao Chang, and he eventually cut off its head and sent it to Fu Deng. Later that year, as Fu Deng was pressuring Yao Chang, however, Yao Chang made a surprise attack at night, around Fu Deng's army, against Fu Deng logistics base Dajie , capturing it and Fu Deng's wife and killing his sons Fu Bian and Fu Shang . He initially wanted to make Empress Mao his concubine, but after she cursed him, he executed her. While Former Qin and Later Qin would continue to stalemate for the next few years, Fu Deng was unable to again threaten Later Qin's existence from this point on.

In 392, Yao Chang grew ill, and Fu Deng, hearing this, made a major attack on the important Later Qin city Anding , but Yao Chang, in his illness, nevertheless faced him in battle, forcing Fu Deng to withdraw -- and then, in the engagement, made a clean evasive maneuver with his troops and disengaged, to Fu Deng's surprise, and Fu Deng commented:

:''What kind of a man is Yao Chang? I could not tell when he would go and when he would come. Everyone thought that he is near death, but he lives to fight. It is unfortunate that I live at the same time as this old Qiang.''

Around the new year 394, Yao Chang died. Yao Xing succeeded him.

Era name

* ''Baique'' 384-386
* ''Jianchu'' 386-393

Personal information

* Father
** Yao Yizhong , posthumously honored as Emperor Jingyuan
* Wife
** Empress She
* Major Concubines
** Consort Sun, posthumously honored as empress dowager, might be Crown Prince Xing's birth mother
* Children
** Yao Xing , the Crown Prince , later emperor
** Yao Chóng , the Duke of Qi
** Yao Xian , the Duke of Changshan
** Yao Chōng
** Yao Shao , initially the Duke of Dongping, later the Duke of Lu
** Yao Yong
** Princess Nan'an

Murong Chong

2008-09-09T21:30:00.003-07:00

Murong Chong , formally Emperor Wei of Yan , was an emperor of the /Xianbei state Western Yan. He was a son of the Former Yan emperor Murong Jun and a younger brother of Former Yan emperor Murong Wei.

It is not known when Murong Chong was born. In 359, he was created the Prince of Zhongshan. In 368, after his uncle Murong Ke, the regent for his brother Murong Wei, had died in 367, he scucceeded Murong Ke in his post as the commander of the armed forces, but there is no evidence that he actually commanded armies. After Former Yan was destroyed by Former Qin in 370, he and his brothers were made local officials throughout the Former Qin realm. Historical accounts indicate that he had a sexual relationship with the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān -- and that Fu Jiān's favors for him and his sister Consort Murong, whom Fu Jiān took as a concubine, were the talk of the Former Qin capital Chang'an.

By 384, he was the governor of Pingyang Commandery . When he heard that his uncle Murong Chui and his older brother Murong Hong had rebelled against Former Qin in light of Fu Jiān's defeat at the Battle of Fei River in 383, he rebelled as well. He was soon defeated by the Former Qin general Dou Chong , and he joined his brother Murong Hong.

In summer 384, as Murong Hong was advancing on Chang'an, Murong Hong's strategist Gao Gai and other officials felt that Murong Hong's reputation was not as great as Murong Chong's, and that Murong Hong's punishments were overly harsh. They therefore killed him and supported Murong Chong to be the new ruler. As Murong Wei was still alive but under Former Qin control in Chang'an, Murong Chong took the title of crown prince. Fu Jiān made a peace overture to him with an apparent sexual undertone -- by sending him a robe and a message reminding him of their personal relationship, but Murong Chong rejected the overture.

Around the new year 385, Murong Wei and his cousin Murong Su organized the Xianbei men within Chang'an, preparing to start an uprising to join Murong Chong, but after Fu Jiān discovered their plot, he executed them and slaughtered the Xianbei inside the city.

Upon hearing news of his brother's death, Murong Chong declared himself emperor. After he took the title, he became capricious and handed out rewards and punishments at his whim. However, he did not let up his pressure against Chang'an, and Chang'an, under his siege, soon fell into a terrible famine. He also allowed his soldiers to pillage the Guanzhong region at will. In summer 385, Fu Jiān broke out to try to find food supplies to relieve Chang'an, leaving his crown prince Fu Hong in defense of the city -- but as soon as he left, the city fell to Murong Chong, and Fu Hong fled.

Despite his Xianbei people's desire to return east to their homeland, Murong Chong decided to settle in Chang'an -- both because he liked the city and because he feared his uncle Murong Chui, who had by then established Later Yan. He therefore sought to get his people to decide to settle as well, but they resented him for the decision. In spring 386, his general Han Yan assassinated him in a coup and supported another general, Duan Sui, as the Prince of Yan.

Era name

* ''Gengshi'' 385-386

Personal information

* Father
** Murong Jun
* Children
** Murong Yao , later emperor

Murong De

2008-09-09T21:30:00.001-07:00

Murong De , name changed in 400 to Murong Beide , courtesy name Xuanming , formally Emperor Xianwu of Yan , was the founding emperor of the /Xianbei state Southern Yan. He was the son of Former Yan's founding prince Murong Huang and younger brother to both Former Yan emperor Murong Jun and Later Yan emperor Murong Chui , and therefore was an imperial prince and general during the times of both states. After Murong Chui's son Murong Bao lost most of Later Yan's territory to Northern Wei, Murong De took troops under his own command south and established Southern Yan, which secured modern Shandong, but failed to expand further, and was destroyed by Jin Dynasty after Murong De's death and succession by his nephew Murong Chao.

During Former Yan

Murong De was born in 336 to Murong Huang and his concubine Consort Gongsun, who had previously given birth to his older brother Murong Na . At that time, Murong Huang was the Duke of Liaodong and a vassal of , although in 337 he claimed for himself the title of Prince of Yan . As this was without Jin authorization , this generally was considered the founding of the independent Former Yan state. When he was young, he was regarded as studious, handsome, and talented.

In 354, after Murong De's older brother Murong Jun formally broke from Jin and claimed imperial title, he created Murong De the Duke of Liang. Sometime after Murong Jun died in 360 and was succeeded by his son Murong Wei, Murong De was created the Prince of Fanyang. By 368, he was the mayor of the capital Yecheng when four dukes of the rival Former Qin rebelled against Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān. Murong De suggested to the regent, his uncle Murong Ping, that Former Yan activate its troops to aid one of them, Fu Sou the Duke of Wei and further take the chance to conquer Former Qin, but his strategy was rejected by Murong Ping.

In 369, when the Jin general Huan Wen launched a major attack on Former Yan, seeking to destroy it, Huan was initially successful and reached Yecheng's vicinity. Murong De's older brother Murong Chui volunteered to make one last attempt against Huan, and Murong De was a general under his command. Together, they dealt Huan a major defeat, forcing Huan to abandon his campaign. However, later that year, Murong Chui, under suspicion by Murong Ping and Murong Wei's mother , was forced to flee to Former Qin, and because of the close relationship Murong De had with Murong Chui, Murong De was removed from his post as the mayor of Yecheng. After Former Qin conquered Former Yan in 370, Murong De, as other princes of the Murong clan did, surrendered to Former Qin forces.

During Former Qin

Fu Jiān made most Former Yan princes commandery governors in his empire, and both Murong De and his brother Murong Na were commissioned as such, but Murong Na was soon removed from his office, and both Murong Na and their mother Consort Gongsun relocated to Murong De's post at Zhangye Commandery . Around or in 383, when Fu Jiān prepared a campaign to destroy Jin and unite China, Murong De and his troops were mobilized, and he left his own sons, Murong Na, and Consort Gongsun in Zhangye; before leaving, he gave his mother a golden knife as a sign of his devotion.

After Fu Jiān's defeat by Jin forces at the Battle of Fei River, Murong De first tried to persuade Murong Chui, to whose camp Fu Jiān had fled, to kill Fu Jiān and start a rebellion to rebuild Yan. When Murong Chui refused, citing Fu Jiān's kindness to him, Murong Chui then tried to persuade Murong Wei to do so, but Murong Wei also refused.

In spring 384, however, Murong Chui did start a rebellion near Luoyang, and after he claimed the title of Prince of Yan, thus establishing Later Yan, he created Murong De his old title of Prince of Fanyang. When the news reached Zhangye, the commandery governor Fu Chang arrested and executed Murong Na and all of Murong De's sons . Consort Gongsun was spared because of her old age, while Murong Na's wife , who was then pregnant, was imprisoned to await for execution after she gave birth. Consort Gongsun and Lady Duan, however, were rescued by Murong De's former subordinate Huyan Ping , who escorted them to the Qiang tribes.

During Later Yan

During Murong Chui's reign

During Murong Chui's reign, Murong De served as a chief official and general, and Murong Chui often listened to his advice. For the first several years of Later Yan's existence, he often carried out campaigns to secure areas that were being held by semi-independent warlords. In particular, around the new year 387, he, assisted by his nephew Murong Long, was successful in defeating the Jin vassal Wen Xiang and the Jin rebel Zhang Yuan , taking the territory near the Yellow River.

In or around 388, Murong De married , the younger sister of Murong Chui's wife, Empress Duan Yuanfei.

In 389, Murong De, along with his nephew Murong Lin, waged a successful campaign against the Xianbei Helan tribe, forcing the submission of its chief Helan Na .

In 393, when Murong Chui considered conquering the rival claimant Murong Yong of Western Yan, most officials opposed the proposal, arguing that the troops were worn out. Murong De was one of the few who agreed with the proposal, reasoning that Murong Yong was causing confusing among the people as to who was the legitimate successor. Murong Chui agreed, and in 394 carried out campaigns that led to Western Yan's destruction.

In 395, Murong De was one of the generals who served under the command of Murong Chui's crown prince Murong Bao in an action calculated to punish Northern Wei's prince 's pillaging of Later Yan borders, but with Murong Bao's incompetence, even with Murong De and other capable generals on staff, the army was crushed by Northern Wei at the Battle of Canhe Slope, and most of the army was captured and then slaughtered by Northern Wei.

After the defeat at Canhe Slope, Murong De suggested to Murong Chui that if he did not conquer Northern Wei, Northern Wei would pose a future threat, since Tuoba Gui now would take Murong Bao lightly. Murong Chui agreed, and in 396 carried out a major attack on Northern Wei again. The campaign was initially successful, but as the army passed through Canhe Slope, the army was so mournful that Murong Chui became embarrassed and angry, and he fell ill. The army was forced to withdraw, and Murong Chui died on the way back to the capital Zhongshan . Murong Bao succeeded Murong Chui.

During Murong Bao's reign

After Murong Bao became emperor, he made Murong De the viceroy at Yecheng, over the southern empire. Soon, however, the entire state was under Northern Wei attack, and Murong Bao decided to defend just large cities in the Hebei plains to wear down Northern Wei troops, while Northern Wei took the rest of the territory. Eventually, only Zhongshan and Yecheng remained in Later Yan hands. Murong De fought off several attempts by Northern Wei to capture Yecheng, but in the meantime, Murong Bao had abandoned Zhongshan and fled back to the old Former Yan capital Longcheng , and Murong De lost regular contact with him. On several occasions his subordinates asked him to take imperial title, but each time, after receiving confirmation that Murong Bao was still alive, he did not do so. In late 397, a proposal by Murong De to Murong Bao to advance south to recover the lost territory reached Murong Bao, and Murong Bao agreed and prepared for a major campaign in 398.

Meanwhile, however, Murong Lin, who had briefly claimed imperial title himself, fled to Yecheng and suggested to Murong De to abandon Yecheng, which he considered too large to defend properly, and head south of the Yellow River to Huatai . Murong De agreed, and in spring 398 abandoned Yecheng, taking his troops to Huatai. There, Murong Lin offered imperial title to him, and while Murong De declined, he claimed the title of Prince of Yan -- the same title that Murong Chui took to show independence -- and thus establishing Southern Yan.

Reign

After Murong Lin offered imperial title to Murong De, however, he immediately plotted another rebellion. Murong De executed him.

Soon, Murong De had to consider whether to kill another nephew. Murong Bao had, unaware that Murong De had effectively declared independence, started a campaign against Northern Wei, but his tired soldiers mutinied, initially forcing him back to Longcheng, and then further capturing Longcheng and forcing him to flee south. He arrived near Huatai, still unaware of Murong De's assumption of Prince of Yan title, and sent out the eunuch Zhao Si as a messenger to Murong De, asking Murong De to send a force to escort him to safety. Murong De initially considered abdicating and welcoming Murong Bao back, but after contrary advice by Zhang Hua and Muyu Hu , he changed his mind and was prepared to seize Murong Bao and put him to death, but by the time that a detachment commanded by Muyu arrived at Murong Bao's hiding spot, Murong Bao had discovered what happened and fled back north. Murong De kept Zhao, but after Zhao cursed him for having been an usurper, he executed Zhao.

In 399, the general Fu Guang , brother of the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng, had heard prophecies that Former Qin would soon be reestablished, and therefore declared a rebellion, claiming the title of Prince of Qin. Murong De personally attacked Fu Guang and killed him, but as he did so, his nephew Murong He the Prince of Luyang, left to guard Huatai, was assassinated by his general Li Bian , who then offered the city to Northern Wei. Northern Wei's viceroy Suhe Ba quickly entered Huatai and defeated returning armies commanded by Murong De and his cousin Murong Zhen the Prince of Guiyang, and the other cities of the Huatai region then surrendered to Northern Wei as well. Murong De considered putting Huatai under siege, but at the advice of his general Han Fan , who argued that sieging Huatai would be difficult, he took his troops and advanced east instead, against the Jin governor of Qing Province , Pilü Hun . In fall 399, he captured the capital of Qing Province, Guanggu , killing Pilü, and making Guanggu his new capital. From this point on, Murong De carried out few military campaigns, appearing to be content with controlling his small but stable empire.

In 400, Murong De claimed the title of emperor, and he changed his name from Murong De to Murong Beide to allow his people easier obedience of naming taboo rules -- and presumably, this meant that the people would only be in violation of the taboo on his name if they used "Beide" together, not "Bei" or "De" individually, as both were common characters. He created Princess Duan empress.

Murong De, once he settled in at Guanggu, sent out multiple missions to try to find the fate of his mother Consort Gongsun and his brother Murong Na. In 401, he sent his official Du Hong , compensating Du by making his father Du Xiong a county magistrate, but after Du Hong arrived in Zhangye, before finding out more, he was killed by bandits. In 403, however, after his former subordinate Zhao Rong arrived from Later Qin territory, Zhao told him that Consort Gongsun and Murong Na were both deceased, and Murong De mourned them so greatly that he became ill -- and from that point on, his health became precarious.

Also in 403, at Murong De's permission, the official Han Zhuo carried out a reform of a policy that Murong De had previously established -- that if people in his state had been forcibly relocated, they would be exempt from property taxes, which however led to fraudulent claims of forcible relocation -- leading to restoration of proper taxation.

In 402, in the aftermaths of Huan Xuan's takeover of the Jin regency by force, several generals who unsuccessfully opposed Huan -- Liu Gui , Sima Xiuzhi , Gao Yazhi , and Liu Jingxuan -- fled to Southern Yan. In 403, Gao submitted a proposal to Murong De to attack Huan, hoping to either conquer Jin or at least seize the Jin territory north of the Yangtze River. Han Fan agreed with the proposal, feeling that Huan was not a good general and could be easily defeated. Murong De was hesitant -- citing that he had long wanted to recover territory from Northern Wei and never considered advancing south -- and then, with a number of other generals agreeing with him, did not carry out Gao's plan. Apparently disappointed, in 404, Gao and Liu Jingxuan plotted to assassinate Murong De and replace him with Sima Xiuzhi, but the plot was leaked after they told Liu Gui, who disagreed with the plot. Liu Gui and Gao were arrested and executed, and Liu Jingxuan and Sima Xiuzhi fled back to Jin .

In summer 405, Murong Na's only surviving son Murong Chao , who was then in the Later Qin capital Chang'an, fled to Southern Yan, proving his identity by presenting Murong De with the golden knife that he had left his mother Consort Gongsun. Murong De was both happy and mournful, and he created Murong Chao the Prince of Beihai -- the same title that Murong Na carried during Former Yan. Since Murong De was without any surviving sons, he intended to make Murong Chao his heir, and therefore selected capable men to be Murong Chao's assistants. Murong Chao impressed most Southern Yan officials, and most considered him the rightful heir. Several month later, during the fall, Murong De fell ill, and he created Murong Chao crown prince. He died soon thereafter, and Murong Chao succeeded him. Murong De's burial was done in an odd way, probably at his own instruction; after he died, more than 10 caskets were carried out of the various gates of Guanggu and buried in secret spots, with only one of them containing the real body of Murong De. After the official mourning period, an empty casket was buried with imperial honors.

Era names

* ''Yanwang'' 398-400
* ''Jianping'' 400-405

Personal information

* Father
** Murong Huang
* Mother
** Consort Gongsun
* Wife
** Empress Duan Jifei

Murong Jun

2008-09-09T21:29:00.011-07:00

Murong Jun , courtesy name Xuanying , formally Emperor Jingzhao of Yan , was an emperor of the state Former Yan. He was the state's second ruler, but after first using the Jin Dynasty -created title of Prince of Yan, was the first to use imperial title, as during his reign the state expanded from possessing merely modern Liaoning and parts of Hebei to nearly all of the territory north of the Yellow River and some substantial holdings south of the Yellow River.

Early career

Murong Jun was born in 319, while his father Murong Huang was still the heir apparent to his grandfather Murong Hui , the -created Duke of Liaodong. In his youth, he was considered to be learned in both literary and military matters. Sometime after his father succeeded his grandfather in 333, he was made the heir apparent, a status that he retained after his father claimed the title Prince of Yan in 337 and after Jin retroactively acknowledged that title in 341.

Historical accounts indicate that Murong Huang also considered Murong Jun's younger brother as the heir apparent, being impressed with Murong Ba's intelligence, but was dissuaded from it by his officials; those sources also attribute this as the reason why Murong Jun was jealous and apprehensive of Murong Ba. If this were true, it did not stop Murong Jun from granting his brother substantial authority during his reign.

The first historical mention of his being involved in leading the army was in 344, when he, along with his uncle Murong Ping, was commissioned to lead an army against , but as the Dai prince Tuoba Shiyijian refused to engage his army, no significant battle occurred.

In 346, Murong Huang commissioned him to command an army against , although the actual command appeared to be held by his brother Murong Ke. The army was successful in capturing the capital of Buyeo and its king Fuyu Xuan .

In 348, Murong Huang died. Murong Jun succeeded him as the Prince of Yan.

As prince of Yan

In 349, following the death of rival Later Zhao's emperor Shi Hu, Later Zhao fell into internecine wars with Shi Hu's sons and his adoptive grandson Shi Min . Under the suggestion of Murong Ba , Murong Jun prepared for expansion into Later Zhao's territory. He commissioned Murong Ke, Murong Ping, Yang Mu , and Murong Chui as major generals, preparing for a major attack against Later Zhao's border region.

In spring 350, Murong Jun launched the attack, and they quickly captured the important city of Jicheng . Murong Jun then moved the capital from Longcheng to Jicheng. In short order, the entire You Province became Former Yan possession. He then continued to march south, but temporarily halted his advances after nearly being defeated by the Later Zhao general Lubo Zao .

Murong Jun resumed his campaign in winter 350, as Ran Min, who had by now established the new state of Ran Wei, was battling Later Zhao's remnants under Shi Zhi. He quickly captured a number of commanderies in Ji Province , approaching Shi Zhi's provisional capital Xiangguo . Shi Zhi, under attack by Ran Min, sought Murong Jun's assistance in early 351, offering to surrender to Murong Jun the imperial seals . Murong Jun sent his general Yue Wan to join Shi Zhi and his general Yao Xiang , and their joint forces dealt Ran Min a major defeat, forcing Ran Min to give up on sieging Xiangguo for the time being, although soon thereafter Ran Min was able to persuade Shi Zhi's general Liu Xian to kill Shi Zhi, ending Later Zhao.

In summer 352, Murong Jun's and Ran Min's forces engaged in a major battle. Murong Ke, in command of Murong Jun's primary forces, tricked Ran Min's infantry into entering the plains, and he then attacked with cavalry forces, dealing Ran Min a major defeat. During the heat of the battle, Ran Min's horse suddenly died, and he fell off and was captured. When Ran Min was taken to see Murong Jun, he, an ethnic , insulted Murong Jun as being a barbarian, and Murong Jun, in anger, whipped him and then executed him by beheading, although he soon became apprehensive about whether Ran Min's spirit was causing a draught, and he buried Ran Min with honors.

Murong Jun next marched against the Ran Wei capital Yecheng . Ran Wei's crown prince Ran Zhi, , and key officials sought assistance from Jin.

At this time Murong Jun was still technically a Jin vassal, but clearly was not going to continue to submit to Jin. Even with Jin assistance, however, Yecheng's defenses were soon breached, and Former Yan forces captured Ran Zhi and Empress Dong, ending Ran Wei. Murong Jun created both Ran Zhi and Empress Dong honorable titles and apparently treated them with kindness, claiming that Empress Dong had surrendered the imperial seals to him. Most of Later Zhao's eastern territories were securely in Former Yan's hands, although Former Yan, Former Qin, and Jin would fight over their borders for years to come.

In winter 352, Murong Jun formally declared independence from Jin and declared himself emperor.

As emperor

In 353, Murong Jun created his wife empress and his heir apparent Murong Ye crown prince. In 354, Murong Jun further created many of his uncles, brothers, and sons princes.

In 355, angered that his cousin Duan Kan , who was in control of modern Shandong and nominally a Jin vassal , wrote a letter to him denouncing him for claiming imperial title, Murong Jun sent Murong Ke and Yang Mu against him. In 356, despite the heavy fortifications that Duan's capital Guanggu had, Murong Ke sieged it, and after Duan's food supplies ran out, he was forced to surrender. Murong Jun initially spared Duan, but for reasons unknown, he executed Duan in 357.

Also in 356, Murong Jun's crown prince Murong Ye died, and in 357, Murong Jun created his younger son Murong Wei as crown prince.

Later in 357, Murong Jun moved the capital from Jicheng to Yecheng.

In 358, Murong Jun started a large scale conscription -- ordering that each family send its service-eligible men into the army except for one per household -- preparing to attack Former Qin and Jin. After a petition by Liu Gui , he scaled back the conscription plan, ordering that for every five service-eligible men of the household, three enter the army.

Later in 358, the grudges between Murong Jun and Murong Chui flared up again. Murong Chui's wife , because her clan was an honored one -- being previously on equal standing as the Murongs, with the title of Duke of Liaoxi -- was not respectful of Murong Jun's wife Empress Kezuhun. The eunuch Nie Hao , believing it to be the emperor and empress' wishes, falsely accused Princess Duan and Murong Chui's assistant Gao Bi of witchcraft, with intent to drag Murong Chui into the case. However, despite torture, Princess Duan and Gao refused to admit, and Murong Chui avoided becoming entangled, although Princess Duan still died in prison. Murong Chui was effectively exiled to be the governor of remote Ping Province .

In 359, Jin forces under Zhuge You and Xie Wan attacked Former Yan, but were defeated by Former Yan forces. This victory allowed Former Yan to gradually take over the modern Henan region, south of the Yellow River.

In early 360, Murong Jun grew ill, and he told Murong Ke that, in light of the rivalries with Former Qin and Jin, he was going to pass the throne to him instead, since he was an adult and highly capable, rather than the 10-year-old Murong Wei. Murong Ke declined -- persuading Murong Jun that if his abilities were capable of ruling over the empire, then they were also capable of assisting the young emperor. He also summoned Murong Chui back to the capital. Afterwards, he grew slightly better, and with the men he conscripted gathered at Yecheng, he intended to have Murong Ke and Yang Mu make a major assault against Jin, but soon his illness grew worse. He then summoned Murong Ke, Yang, Murong Ping, and Muyu Gen to entrust the crown prince to them. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Wei.

Era names

* ''Yanwang'' 349-353
* ''Yuanxi'' 353-357
* ''Guangshou'' 357-360

Personal information

* Father
** Murong Huang
* Mother
** Likely , Murong Huang's wife
* Wife
**
* Major Concubines
** Consort Duan, posthumously honored by Murong Chui as Empress Jingde
* Children
** Murong Ye , Crown Prince Xianhuai
** Murong Xian , later changed to Murong Zang , the Prince of Le'an
** Murong Liang , the Prince of Bohai
** Murong Wen , the Prince of Daifang , later Prince Dao of Lelang during Later Yan
** Murong She , the Prince of Yuyang
** Murong Wei , initially the Prince of Zhongshan , later the Crown Prince , later emperor
** Murong Hong , the Prince of Jibei , later ruler of Western Yan
** Murong Chong , the Prince of Zhongshan , later Emperor Wei of Western Yan
** Murong Yuan , the Prince of Dingxiang
** A daughter, later concubine of Fu Jiān

Song Hun

2008-09-09T21:29:00.009-07:00

Song Hun was a regent of the state Former Liang.

During the reign of the violent and capricious Zhang Zuo, Song Hun served as a general, even though he constantly feared Zhang Zuo, because his older brother Song Xiu had previously had a conflict with Zhang Zuo. In 355, when Zhang Guan rose against Zhang Zuo, Song started an uprising of his own against Zhang Zuo as well, and quickly arrived at the capital Guzang . Zhang Guan's brother Zhang Ju and son Zhang Song then started an uprising inside the city and opened the gates to welcome Song's forces in. Zhang Zuo's own troops turned on him and killed him. Song and Zhang Ju jointlly declared Zhang Zuo's nephew, Zhang Xuanjing , the Duke of Xiping, a -created title that his ancestors had carried for generations. When Zhang Guan subsequently arrived, Zhang Guan became regent, and Song was a key assistant. Zhang Guan overruled Song's decision and had Zhang Xuanjing claim a title that Jin had never conferred -- Prince of Liang.

Zhang Guan's regency was a dictatorial one, and he suspected people of conspiring against him. He was particularly suspicious of Song, since Song was loyal to the state institutions, and Zhang Guan wanted to eventually take over as ruler himself. In 359, he therefore planned to kill Song Hun and his brother Song Cheng . Song Hun heard this and started an uprising, declaring that Zhang Guan had committed treason and that he had authorization from Zhang Xuanjing's grandmother Princess Dowager Ma to kill him. Their forces battled inside the city, but Song Hun's forces prevailed, and Zhang Guan and Zhang Ju committed suicide. He slaughtered their clan.

Song Hun was considered an able and tolerant regent -- even, for example, commissioning one of Zhang Guan's bodyguards, Xuan Lu , who had, during the battle, tried to kill him with a spear but failed and was captured, as a trusted officer. Under his decision, Zhang Xuanjing relinquished the title Prince of Liang and again claimed the Jin-created title Duke of Xiping. Song himself was created the Marquess of Jiuquan.

In 361, Song Hun grew ill, and Zhang Xuanjing and Princess Dowager Ma visited him personally, asking whether his son Song Linzong should succeed him if he died. Song Hun noted that Song Linzong was young and weak in personality, and that Song Cheng might be an appropriate choice -- but also warned that Song Cheng's reaction was slow and needed to be watched closely. Song Hun warned Song Cheng and his own sons that they needed to be humble and faithful to the state, and he told many officials the same. He soon died, and it was described that the commoners on the street were all mournful and weeping. Song Cheng became regent, but just several months later, the general Zhang Yong , who was unhappy that Song Cheng became regent, overthrew Song Cheng and slaughtered the Song clan. Zhang Yong and Zhang Xuanjing's uncle Zhang Tianxi served as coregents, and soon Zhang Tianxi killed Zhang Yong , but eventually overthrew Zhang Xuanjing himself in 363 and took the throne.

Xie Ai

2008-09-09T21:29:00.007-07:00

Xie Ai was a general for the state Former Liang who served under Zhang Chonghua.

Xie Ai was initially regarded as only capable in civilian matters, and apparently served as a civilian official during the rule of Zhang Chonghua's father . In 346, in light of Zhang Jun's death and succession by Zhang Chonghua, Later Zhao launched a major attack against Former Liang, with intent to destroy Former Liang. Under the recommendation of the general Zhang Chen , who knew of Xie's capabilities in military strategy, Zhang Chonghua made Xie a general and had him face the Later Zhao forces commanded by Wang Zhuo and Ma Qiu . After an initial victory later in 346, Zhang Chonghua created Xie the Count of Fulu. In 347, as Ma sieged the important city Fuhan , Zhang Chonghua sent Xie to try to relieve the city. As Xie arrived at the frontline, he was seen wearing a white cap and riding in a wagon -- making him appear to be a civilian -- and Ma felt insulted that Xie apparently did not consider his siege an emergency. He sent some elite soldiers to make an attack against Xie, but Xie calmly responded, and Ma's elite soldiers thought they were getting into a trap and stopped their advance. Meanwhile, an army sent by Xie had already gone behind them and started an attack. Xie then advanced as well and dealt Ma a great loss. In the fall, Ma attacked Former Liang again and was again repelled by Xie.

Several years later, due to defamations by Zhang Chonghua's attendants Zhao Zhang and Wei Ji , Zhang Chonghua sent Xie out of the capital to be the governor of Jiuquan Commandery . However, when Zhang Chonghua grew gravely ill in 353, he tried to recall Xie to be regent for his son and heir Zhang Yaoling. The order, however, was intercepted by Zhao and Zhang Chonghua's brother Zhang Zuo and not announced. Zhang Chonghua soon died and was succeeded by Zhang Yaoling, but real power was in Zhang Zuo's hands. In early 354, Zhang Zuo, with the support of Zhang Chonghua's mother Princess Dowager Ma , formally took over as ruler, and he, still bearing grudge against Xie for having earlier warned Zhang Chonghua about his treachery, had Xie put to death.

Zhang Guan

2008-09-09T21:29:00.005-07:00

Zhang Guan was a general and regent of the state Former Liang, during the early reign of the young prince Zhang Xuanjing.

Zhang Guan was a distant relative of the ruling family of Former Liang. He was serving as the governor of He Province under Zhang Xuanjing's uncle Zhang Zuo, who had seized the throne from Zhang Xuanjing's older brother Zhang Yaoling in 354. Zhang Zuo, whose reign was marked by violence and extravagance, was fearful of Zhang Guan's military power, so he sent his subordinate Suo Fu to replace Zhang Guan while ordering Zhang Guan to attack Xiongnu tribes which had rebelled. He then set up an ambush against Zhang Guan, ready to seize him and/or kill him. However, news leaked, and Zhang Guan executed Suo and then proceeded against the capital, announcing that he was going to restore Zhang Yaoling. He won victories over Zhang Zuo's forces and approached the capital Guzang . He was joined in his cause by the general Song Hun, who also marched on Guzang. In response, Zhang Zuo executed Zhang Yaoling by beating him to death.

That move, however, did not save Zhang Zuo. As Song arrived at the capital, Zhang Zuo ordered that Zhang Guan's brother Zhang Ju and son Zhang Song be arrested and killed, but Zhang Ju and Zhang Song instead started an uprising within Guzang and opened the city gates to allow Song Hun's forces to enter. Zhang Zuo's own forces turned on him and killed him. Song Hun and Zhang Ju then declared the six-year-old Zhang Xuanjing the Duke of Xiping -- a hereditary Jin Dynasty -created title that his family had held for generations. Upon Zhang Guan's subsequent arrival at Guzang, he became the regent, and he instead had Zhang Xuanjing claim the title of Prince of Liang, a title that Jin did not confer, but continued to claim to be a Jin vassal. He had himself made the governor of Liang Province and the Duke of Zhangyi. In early 356, in response to diplomatic and implicit military pressure that Former Qin put on the state, Zhang Guan submitted Former Liang to formal Former Qin authority.

Once Zhang Guan became regent, he became dictatorial and suspicious, making awards and punishments based on his own personal whim. He became apprehensive of Song Hun, and considered killing Song Hun and his brother Song Cheng , and further considered deposing Zhang Xuanjing and making himself prince. Once Song Hun heard this news, he gathered his troops and declared Zhang Guan to be treasonous, claiming to have authorization from Zhang Xuanjing's grandmother Princess Dowager Ma to kill him. A battle soon developed within Guzang, but Song prevailed, and Zhang Guan and his brother Zhang Ju both committed suicide, and their clan was slaughtered. Song Hun became the regent.

Fu Chong

2008-09-09T21:29:00.003-07:00

Fu Chong was an emperor of the / state Former Qin. He assumed the throne in 394 after the death of his father, Fu Deng . He would later die in battle against the Western Qin, ending Former Qin.

During Fu Deng's reign

Fu Chong was first mentioned in history in 386, when his father assumed imperial title of Former Qin after the death of Fu Pi . In 387, Fu Deng created Fu Pi's son Fu Yi crown prince and created Fu Chong the Prince of Dongping and made him one of the key officials. After Fu Yi died in 388, Fu Chong was created crown prince. His involvements in his father's campaigns against the rival Later Qin's emperor Yao Chang are not completely clear.

In 394, after Yao Chang's death, Fu Deng launched a major attack against Later Qin; he had his brother Fu Guang defend the base of Yongcheng and Fu Chong defend the base of Hu Kong Castle and, in his anxiety, did not make sure that his army had sufficient water supply. Yao Xing set up his army at Mawei to prevent Former Qin forces from reaching the river near Mawei, and Former Qin forces collapsed in thirst. Upon hearing the defeat, Fu Guang and Fu Chong abandoned the two bases that they were holding, and Fu Deng was unable to recapture them. He instead fled to Pingliang and then into the mountains. He sent his son Fu Zong the Prince of Ruyin to the ruler of Western Qin, Qifu Gangui and married his sister to Qifu Gangui as his princess, seeking aid from Qifu Gangui. Qifu Gangui sent his general Qifu Yizhou to aid Fu Deng, but as Fu Deng came out of the mountains to join Qifu Yizhou's forces, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him.

Brief reign

Upon hearing his father's death, Fu Chong fled to Huangzhong , under Qifu Gangui's control, and declared himself emperor. He created his son Fu Xuan crown prince. However, in winter 394, Qifu Gangui expelled him, and he fled to one of his father's last remaining generals, Yang Ding the Prince of Longxi. Yang led his forces to join Fu Chong's to attack Qifu Gangui. Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Yizhou and two other generals, Qifu Ketan and Yuezhi Jiegui against Yang and Fu Chong, and Yang was initially successful against Qifu Yizhou. However, the three Western Qin generals then counterattacked and killed Yang and Fu Chong in battle. This ended Former Qin, as while Fu Chong's crown prince Fu Xuan then fled to and allied with Yang Ding's cousin and successor Yang Sheng , he did not seek to reestablish Former Qin's governmental structure. Fu Xuan was later mentioned in history in 397, when both he and Yang Sheng were given general titles by , in 407, when he led Yang Sheng's army against Later Qin, and in 413, when he was forced by Jin to return to Yang's domain of Chouchi.

Era name

* ''Yanchu'' 394

Personal information

* Father
** Fu Deng
* Children
** Fu Xuan , the Crown Prince

Fu Deng

2008-09-09T21:29:00.001-07:00

Fu Deng was an emperor of the / state Former Qin. He assumed the throne in 386 after the deaths of Fu Jiān and Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi , even though he was only a distant relative of theirs, as by that time Former Qin's territory had largely been reduced to the territory under his control. He battled the Later Qin emperor Yao Chang for years in a stalemate that neither could conclusively prevail, but in 394, he made a major attack on Later Qin after Yao Chang's death, seriously underestimating Yao Chang's son and successor Yao Xing, who captured and executed him. Later that year, his son Fu Chong, who succeeded him, would die in battle, ending Former Qin.

Early career

Fu Deng was born in 343, to Fu Chang , a distant grandnephew of Former Qin's founder Fu Jiàn, while still under Later Zhao rule. After Fu Jiàn founded Former Qin in 351, Fu Chang served as a general and a commandery governor. During the reign of Fu Jiàn's cruel and whimsical son Fu Sheng , Fu Chang was executed, but he was posthumously honored after Fu Sheng was overthrown by his cousin Fu Jiān. Fu Jiān was impressed by Fu Deng's abilities, and when he grew older, Fu Deng was made the county magistrate of the capital Chang'an. Later, however, for unspecified faults, he was demoted to be the county magistrate for Didao .

After Former Qin began to collapse in 384 and Fu Jiān was killed by the Later Qin general Yao Chang in 385, Fu Deng became a subordinate of the general Mao Xing , who sought to control all of the provinces in the west still nominally under Former Qin rule, but his soldiers became weary from all of the battles and assassinated him in 386, replacing him with Wei Ping , a very old general who was the head of the clan. However, these soldiers soon became convinced that Wei was too old to accomplish much, and they deposed Wei and replaced him with Fu Deng. Fu Deng submitted a report of these events to Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi, the new emperor, and Fu Pi commissioned him as a provincial governor and created him the Prince of Nan'an.

Later in 386, Fu Pi died in battle against , and the territory under his direct control , as well as his officials, fell into the hands of the Western Yan emperor Murong Yong. His official Kou Qian escorted his sons Fu Yi the Prince of Bohai and Fu Chang the Prince of Jibei to Fu Deng's domain. Fu Deng, after mourning for Fu Pi, proposed to have Fu Yi declared emperor, but his subordinates all opined that given the state Former Qin was in , the state needed an older emperor; at their suggestion, Fu Deng himself took the throne. He made Fu Yi his crown prince.

Reign

Before the Battle of Dajie

Even before he took imperial title, Fu Deng battled Yao Chang continuously, and the wars between Fu Deng and Yao Chang's Later Qin intensified after Fu Deng became Former Qin's emperor. Fu Deng set up a shrine to Fu Jiān in his army, and whenever he made a key decision he would report it to Fu Jiān. He was also described as a master of square and circular formations , and initially won a number of battles over Later Qin -- so much so that Yao Chang, in fear, also set up a shrine dedicated to Fu Jiān in his army, apologizing for his killing of Fu Jiān and requesting forgiveness. However, after that failed to yield victories, Yao Chang cut off the head of the effigy he had made of Fu Jiān and delivered to Fu Deng. But Fu Deng's victories over Yao Chang did not appear to have lasting impact, and the wars between Former Qin and Later Qin became stalemated. Meanwhile, Fu Deng's shortcomings became exposed -- an inability to take decisive action to deal heavy damage to Later Qin, and Yao Chang took advantage of his indecisive tendencies to gradually destroy other semi-independent generals in the Guanzhong region and consolidate his power base.

In 387, Fu Deng created the ruler of Western Qin, Qifu Guoren, the Prince of Wanchuan, and Qifu Guoren accepted, signifying at least nominal submission to Fu Deng. After Qifu Guoren died in 388 and was succeeded by his brother Qifu Gangui, the relationship continued.

In summer 388, Fu Yi the Crown Prince died, and Fu Deng created his own son Fu Chong to be the crown prince.

In summer 389, a battle would greatly damage Fu Deng. He had set up a base of operations at Dajie , guarded by his wife , while attacking Later Qin's city of Pingliang and capturing it. Meanwhile, however, Yao Chang made a surprise attack on Dajie, capturing and killing Empress Mao and Fu Deng's sons Fu Bian the Prince of Nan'an and Fu Shang the Prince of Beihai. Some 50,000 of Fu Deng's people were captured.

After the Battle of Dajie

After the Battle of Dajie, Fu Deng appeared to be no longer able to again make major attacks against Later Qin, although the two states continued to battle continuously, and Yao Chang appeared to be equally unable to destroy Fu Deng. However, Yao Chang continued the consolidation process by destroying other semi-independent generals, and Later Qin grew stronger and stronger.

In 392, Fu Deng created one of his concubines, , empress.

Later in 392, Yao Chang grew ill, and Fu Deng, hearing this, made a major attack on the important Later Qin city Anding , but Yao Chang, in his illness, nevertheless faced him in battle, forcing Fu Deng to withdraw -- and then, in the engagement, made a clean evasive maneuver with his troops and disengaged, to Fu Deng's surprise, and Fu Deng commented:

:''What kind of a man is Yao Chang? I could not tell when he would go and when he would come. Everyone thought that he is near death, but he lives to fight. It is unfortunate that I live at the same time as this old Qiang.''

Death

Yao Chang died around the new year 394 and was succeeded by his son Yao Xing. While Yao Xing tried to keep news of Yao Chang's death a secret, the news still got to Fu Deng. Fu Deng, extremely glad to hear about Yao Chang's death, prepared to launch a major assault against Later Qin -- he had his brother Fu Guang defend the base of Yongcheng and Fu Chong defend the base of Hu Kong Castle , and, in his anxiety, did not make sure that his army had sufficient water supply. Yao Xing set up his army at Mawei to prevent Former Qin forces from reaching the river near Mawei, and Former Qin forces collapsed in thirst. Upon hearing the defeat, Fu Guang and Fu Chong abandoned the two bases that they were holding, and Fu Deng was unable to recapture them. He instead fled to Pingliang and then into the mountains. He sent his son Fu Zong the Prince of Ruyin to Qifu Gangui and married his sister the to Qifu Gangui as his princess, seeking aid from Qifu Gangui. Qifu Gangui sent his general Qifu Yizhou to aid Fu Deng, but as Fu Deng came out of the mountains to join Qifu Yizhou's forces, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him. He disbanded Fu Deng's troops and gave Fu Deng's Empress Li to his general Yao Huang .

Era name

* ''Taichu'' 386-394

Personal information

* Father
** Fu Chang , killed by Fu Sheng
* Wives
** , daughter of Mao Xing
**
* Children
** Fu Chong , initially the Prince of Dongping , later the Crown Prince , later emperor
** Fu Bian , the Prince of Nan'an
** Fu Shang , the Prince of Beihai
** Fu Zong , the Prince of Ruyin

Fu Pi

2008-09-09T21:28:00.005-07:00

Fu Pi , courtesy name Yongshu , formally Emperor Aiping of Qin , was an emperor of the / state Former Qin. He was Fu Jiān's oldest son, although not his crown prince, and after Fu Jiān's death at the hands of Yao Chang, the founder of Later Qin, and his brother Fu Hong the Crown Prince was forced to flee to , he claimed imperial title in 385, but was defeated by the Western Yan prince Murong Yong in 386, and then subsequently killed by the Jin general Feng Gai .

Early career

Fu Pi was first mentioned in historical records in 357, when his father Fu Jiān overthrew the violent and whimsical emperor Fu Sheng and took the throne with the title "Heavenly Prince" . Fu Jiān created Fu Pi, his oldest son, the Duke of Changle. At that time, Fu Pi was described to have talent in both governance and military matters, whose talents were only lesser to his uncle Fu Rong, whose abilities were much praised by historians.

In 378, Fu Jiān commissioned Fu Pi to command a large army against the city Xiangyang . At the advice of the general Gou Chang , Fu Pi chose to surround the city and cut off its supply route to strangle it into submission, rather than making direct assaults on the city. However, around the new year 379, Fu Jiān, anxious to capture the city, sent him a sword, stating that if by the spring he had not captured the city, he should kill himself with the sword. After receiving the sword, Fu Pi, in fear, made a fierce attack on the city and captured it.

As viceroy over eastern provinces

In 380, Fu Jiān recalled Fu Rong, who had served as the viceroy over the eastern provinces , back to the capital Chang'an to serve as prime minister in place of the capable , who died in 375. Fu Pi was made the viceroy of the eastern provinces to replace Fu Rong. As Fu Jiān, that year, also implemented a plan to distribute his Di people to various regions of the empire, a substantial number of Di soldiers and their families accompanied Fu Pi to his command post at .

Fu Pi was not involved in the crushing defeat that Former Qin foces suffered at the Battle of Fei River, as he remained at Yecheng. In the aftermaths of the battle, however, the Xianbei general Murong Chui, a Former Yan prince, plotted a rebellion to reestablish Yan. In late 383, after persuading Fu Jiān to allow him to visit the eastern provinces to try to calm the people in light of the defeat at Fei River, Murong Chui arrived at Yecheng, where Murong Chui continued plotting, and where Murong Chui and Fu Pi considered ambushing each other but each decided not to do so. When, subsequently, the Dingling chieftain Zhai Bin rebelled and attacked Luoyang, defended by Fu Pi's brother Fu Hui the Duke of Pingyuan, Fu Jiān ordered Murong Chui to put down Zhai's rebellion, and Fu Pi sent his assistant Fu Feilong to serve as Murong Chui's assistant. On the way to Luoyang, however, Murong Chui killed Fu Feilong and his Di soldiers and prepared to openly rebel. Meanwhile, despite his suspicions of Murong Chui, Fu Pi did not put Murong Chui's son Murong Nong and nephews Murong Kai and Murong Shao under surveillance, and the three fled out of Yecheng and started a rebellion of their own.

In spring 384, Murong Chui openly declared the establishment of Later Yan, claiming the title of Prince of Yan. Fu Pi tried to persuade Murong Chui to end his rebellion, but Murong Chui refused and attacked Yecheng but was unable to capture it quickly. However, most cities north of the Yellow River and east of Taihang Mountains switched allegiance or were captured by Later Yan forces, leaving Yecheng isolated. With the heart of the empire itself under attacks by rebel regimes Later Qin and Western Yan, Fu Pi could have no expectation of receiving aid, and the situation soon grew desperate for him and his troops. In late 384, Murong Chui briefly lifted the siege of Yecheng to try to regroup, but at the same time, Jin forces attacked. Fu Pi sued for peace, but without his knowledge his assistant Yang Ying also promised on his behalf that he would surrender to Jin. With that promise, the Jin general Xie Xuan aided him with troops and food supplies, but eventually the temporary alliance broke up again. Meanwhile, Murong Chui returned and again put the city under siege after defeating Jin troops under Liu Laozhi . In 385, Fu Pi abandoned Yecheng and headed northwest to Jinyang , where he received news that his father Fu Jiān had been killed by the Later Qin ruler Yao Chang. He then declared himself emperor.

Reign

Fu Pi took measures to try to consolidate his current position -- now largely only over modern Shanxi, although there were still many pockets of territory loyal to Former Qin in modern Shaanxi and Gansu, and there were also still pockets of resistance even in the middle of Later Yan territory. His prime minister Wang Yong issued a declaration inviting all those who were still loyal to be prepared to rendezvous at Linjin in winter 386. Many local generals answered the call, although the rendezvous would never actually happen.

In fall 386, the Western Yan ruler Murong Yong, whose people had abandoned the Guanzhong region to head east, trying to return to their home land, requested Fu Pi to grant permission to let them through. Fu Pi refused and tried to intercept them, but suffered a major defeat, in which Wang Yong and the major general Juqu Jushizi were killed, and most of Fu Pi's officials and his wife were captured. The only general under Fu Pi who still had a strong army remaining was his cousin Fu Zuan the Prince of Donghai, who remained at Jinyang, but Fu Pi was suspicious of Fu Zuan's intentions and therefore did not dare to return to Jinyang, but instead headed south, wanting to make a surprise attack on Luoyang, then held by Jin. The Jin general Feng Gai intercepted him and killed him in battle. His sons Fu Ning the crown prince and Fu Shou the Prince of Changle were captured by Jin forces but pardoned and given to their uncle Fu Hong -- Fu Jiān's crown prince, who had surrendered to Jin earlier. His sons Fu Yi the Prince of Bohai and Fu Chang the Prince of Jibei were escorted by an official to his distant nephew Fu Deng the Prince of Nan'an, who initially proposed making Fu Yi the emperor, but after his subordinates recommended that he take the throne himself, did so.

Era name

* ''Tai'an'' 385-386

Personal information

* Father
** Fu Jiān
* Wife
**
* Children
** Fu Ning , the Crown Prince
** Fu Shou , the Prince of Changle
** Fu Qiang , the Prince of Pingyuan
** Fu Yi , initially the Prince of Bohai , later Crown Prince Xian'ai under Fu Deng
** Fu Chang , the Prince of Jibei

Fu Rong

2008-09-09T21:28:00.003-07:00

Fu Rong , courtesy name Boxiu , formally Duke Ai of Yangping , was an official and general of the / state Former Qin. He was a younger brother of Fu Jiān, the third emperor of the state.

Early life

Fu Rong, when he was young, was known for his virtues. His uncle, the state founder Fu Jiàn wanted to create him the Prince of Anle, and when he declined, Fu Jiàn was surprised but permitted him to decline. After Fu Jiàn's death, his son and successor Fu Sheng greatly favored Fu Rong, and often had Fu Rong attend him in the palace.

After Fu Jiān overthrew the arbitrary and violent Fu Sheng in 357 and claimed the title of "Heavenly Prince" , he created Fu Rong the Duke of Yangping, and he made Fu Rong one of his chief advisors. Historians stated that Fu Rong was intelligent and had excellent memory, and was also physically strong and skilled at horsemanship, archery, and the use of spears. They also stated that he was skillful at ruling on legal cases and in governing the state. In 359, when Fu Jiān was making the prime minister, Wang Meng initially declined and recommended Fu Rong instead, but Fu Jiān disallowed Wang's request. Throughout the years, Fu Rong largely acted as a voice for caution, urging Fu Jiān against risky actions. For example, in 360, Fu Jiān was going to relocate some Wuhuan and Xianbei tribes that had surrendered near the capital Chang'an, but after Fu Rong argued that it was too risky to locate recently surrendered peoples near the capital, Fu Jiān relented.

Career as Fu Jiān's advisor

After Former Qin destroyed rival Former Yan in 370, Fu Jiān initially put Wang Meng in charge of the six provinces that Former Yan possessed, as viceroy, but in 372 he recalled Wang to again be prime minister, and made Fu Rong the viceroy of the six provinces. Although he was away from the capital, he urged Fu Jiān not to incorporate so many Xianbei officials into his own government, a suggestion Fu Jiān did not accept. Indeed, from this point on, although it was clear that Fu Jiān still trusted his brother deeply, he rarely listened to Fu Rong's cautionary suggestions.

In 379, while Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi was sieging the city Xiangyang , Fu Jiān had initially ordered Fu Rong to mobilize the six eastern provinces and meet him personally at Xiangyang, but at Fu Rong's urgings , Fu Jiān cancelled the order.

In 380, when his cousin Fu Luo the Duke of Xingtang rebelled in You Province , Fu Rong was the supreme commander of the forces attacking Fu Luo, although he did not personally engage Fu Luo before the general Lü Guang defeated and captured Fu Luo. Later that year, Fu Jiān recalled Fu Rong to serve as a prime minister, replacing Wang Meng, who had died in 375. Fu Pi took over as viceroy of the six provinces.

In 382, Fu Rong urged against a campaign that Fu Jiān launched, under Lü's command, against the Xiyu kingdoms, but Fu Jiān did not listen to him.

Battle of Fei River

Late that year, Fu Jiān resolved to attack Jin, hoping to destroy and unite China. Most officials were opposed. He summoned Fu Rong to a private conversation, hoping that Fu Rong would support it, but Fu Rong, citing Wang's urging against it on his deathbed, opposed -- arguing that it would be a dangerous venture and that what Fu Jiān truly had to look out for were the Xianbei and Qiang generals who might rebel. Fu Jiān did not listen to him, but instead put him in charge of commanding the invasion force against Jin. In 383, the campaign was launched, as Fu Rong led some 300,000 men and headed toward the Jin city of Shouyang , capturing it with relative ease. Fu Jiān soon joined him personally, and they prepared further movements. However, Jin forces, commanded by Xie Shi , dealt Fu Rong's forward troops minor defeats, and the morale dropped. Eventually, the armies were stalemated across the Fei River , Former Qin forces to the west and Jin forces to the east.

The Jin general Xie Xuan sent a message to Fu Rong, suggesting that the Former Qin forces retreat slightly to allow Jin forces to cross the Fei River, so that the armies could engage. Fu Jiān overruled the generals' reluctance for the plan, wanting to attack Jin forces as they were crossing the river, and Fu Rong agreed, ordering a retreat. However, the Former Qin forces fell into a panic while retreating, and Jin forces attacked. Fu Rong tried to personally calm the troops, but as he was doing so, his horse suddenly fell, and he was killed by Jin forces. His death brought further panic to the Former Qin forces, and it entirely collapsed. Former Qin would not able to restart its attack against Jin, and a chain of events eventually led to its near destruction in 385.

Fu Sheng

2008-09-09T21:28:00.001-07:00

Fu Sheng , originally named Pu Sheng , courtesy name Changsheng , formally Prince Li of Yue , was an emperor of the / state Former Qin. He was the son of Former Qin's founding emperor Fu Jiàn, and was a violent, arbitrary, and cruel ruler, and after ruling for only two years was overthrown by his cousin Fu Jiān in a coup and executed, and therefore was not posthumously recognized as an emperor during the remainder of Former Qin's rule.

Before reign

Pu Sheng was born to Pu Jiàn in 335, as his third son, by his wife, the later Empress Qiang. At that time, both Pu Jiàn and his father were generals for Later Zhao. Pu Sheng was born blind in one eye. Once, his grandfather Pu Hong teased him, "I heard that you, my blind boy, only shed tears from one eye; is that true?" Pu Sheng, in anger, stabbed himself and exclaimed, "This is the other eye shedding tear!" Pu Hong, shocked at his reaction, whipped him and told him, "You are only deserving to be a slave!" He responded, "That is fine; I'll just be like Shi Le." Pu Hong became concerned at his behavior, which was also manifested by lack of discipline, and told Pu Jiàn that he should consider killing his son, lest that his family be destroyed by him. Pu Jiàn considered it, but was dissuaded from it by his brother . As Pu Sheng grew, he became known for his strength and ferocity in battle, as he was strong enough to battle wild beasts, and was skillful in horsemanship and use of weapons. After his father established Former Qin in 351, he was created the Prince of Huainan.

In 354, when the general Huan Wen launched a major attack against Former Qin, nearly destroying it, Fu Sheng was one of the generals that Fu Jiàn commissioned to lead the army against Huan. Fu Sheng was personally successful in battles, killing many, but was not particularly successful as a general. Eventually, Huan was forced to withdraw when his food supplies ran out, but Fu Sheng's older brother Fu Chang the Crown Prince suffered an arrow wound during the campaign, and died in winter 354. Initially, his mother Empress Qiang wanted to create his younger brother Fu Liu the Prince of Jin crown prince, but Fu Jiàn, reading a prophecy that contained the phrase "three goats shall have five eyes," believed that the prophecy indicated that Fu Sheng should succeed him , and therefore created Fu Sheng crown prince. After a failed coup by his cousin Fu Qing the Prince of Pingchang to take over in 355, Fu Sheng succeeded to the throne when his father died thereafter. He honored his mother Empress Qiang as empress dowager, and created his wife empress.

Reign

Fu Sheng almost immediately displayed his violent and cruel nature, however. Fu Jiàn's will commissioned a number of high level officials to serve as Fu Sheng's assistants, but all of them perished rather quickly under his violent rule:

* Yu Zun : executed in 357 along with his sons and grandsons after Fu Sheng dreamed of a large fish eating
* Lei Ruo'er : executed in 355 along with his sons and grandsons after false accusations by Fu Sheng's associates Zhao Shao and Dong Rong
* Mao Gui , uncle of Fu Sheng's wife : executed in 355 along with Empress Liang, Liang An, and Liang Leng after astrologers prophesied that there would be a great funeral and high level officials would be killed
* Wang Duo : executed in 356 after offending Dong, who then advised Fu Jiàn that a high level official needed to be executed in accordance with astrological signs
* Liang Leng : executed in 355, along with Empress Liang, Mao Gui, and Liang An
* Liang An : executed in 355, along with Empress Liang, Mao Gui, and Liang Leng
* Duan Chun : executed in 355, the same day that Fu Jiàn became emperor, after Fu Sheng was offended at his suggestion that changing era name in the middle of a year was improper
* Xin Lao : killed in 356 by an arrow Fu Sheng launched during the middle of a feast after Fu Sheng became displeased that he, as the master of ceremony, was not getting everyone drunk

Because Fu Sheng was blind in one eye and apparently apprehensive that people would be making fun at him or be contemputous of him due to that disability, he ordered that words such as "missing," "lacking," "slanted," "less," and "without" not be used. He was also engaged in heavy drinking, and he often either ignored officials' petitions altogether or made irrational decisions on them in the middle of his stupor, allowing his attendants to make random decisions on his behalf. He also carried out cruel punishment -- in addition to frequent executions, he also liked to cruelly treat animals -- including throwing them into boiling water or skinning them alive -- the latter he sometimes applied to humans. In 356, when his uncle Qiang Ping , Empress Dowager Qiang's brother, tried to correct his ways, he broke Qiang Ping's skull by hammering him, and then executed him, leading Empress Dowager Qiang to die in sorrow and fear.

Also in 356, Fu Sheng's brother Fu Liu the Prince of Jin was able to persuade the Former Liang regent Zhang Guan to have the young Former Liang ruler Zhang Xuanjing become a vassal.

In 357, the former Jin general Yao Xiang , who, after rebelling against Jin in 354, had intended to establish his independent state, attacked Fomer Qin's northern territory, and the Former Qin generals Deng Qiang and Fu Huangmei the Prince of Guangping fought back and captured and executed him. Fu Sheng, still respectful of Yao Xiang and his father Yao Yizhong , whose casket Yao had carried with his army, buried both with honors. However, he not only did not reward Fu Huangmei but further insulted him, leading Fu Huangmei to plot an unsuccessful assassination against him, resulting in Fu Huangmei's death.

Later in 357, Fu Sheng became suspicious of his cousins Fu Jiān the Prince of Donghai and Fu Fa the Prince of Qinghe and considered killing them. His leaked the news to Fu Jiān, who immediately led his private army to attack the palace. The imperial guards, who had already resented Fu Sheng's ferocity, surrendered without resisting. Fu Jiān captured Fu Sheng, who was still in a drunken stupor, and had him deposed and then executed. Fu Jiān then took the throne.

Era name

* ''Shouguang'' 355-357

Personal information

* Father
** Fu Jiàn
* Mother
** Empress Qiang
* Wife
**

Fu Jian

2008-09-09T21:27:00.001-07:00

Fú Jiān , courtesy name Yonggu or Wenyu , formally Emperor Xuanzhao of Qin , was an emperor of the / state Former Qin, under whose rule the Former Qin state reached its greatest glory -- destroying Former Yan, Former Liang, and and seizing 's Yi Province , posturing to destroy Jin as well to unite China, until he was repelled at the Battle of Fei River in 383. For a variety of reasons, the Former Qin state soon collapsed after that defeat, and Fú Jiān himself was killed by his former subordinate, Yao Chang the founding emperor of Later Qin, in 385.

Early life

Fú Jiān was born in 337, when the family name was still Pu , to Fu Xiong and his wife . His grandfather was a chieftain and a major general for Later Zhao, serving under the violent emperor Shi Hu, who did however accord Pu great respect. Later, during Later Zhao's collapse, Pu Hong changed his name to Fu Hong, and planned a conquest of the Guanzhong region, but was poisoned by the general Ma Qiu . He was succeeded by his son, Fú Jiān's uncle Fu Jiàn, who did advance west and conquer the Guanzhong region and the surrounding provinces. In this, he was ably assisted by Fú Jiān's father Fu Xiong, whom he created the Prince of Donghai. In 354, while on a campaign, Fu Xiong died. As the son of Fu Xiong's wife, Fú Jiān inherited the title of Prince of Donghai, even though he had at least one older brother, Fu Fa , who was created the Prince of Qinghe. Fú Jiān developed the reputation of being filial and far-sighted, as well as being knowledgeable and able.

As Fú Jiān grew older, he received some military responsibilities under his cousin Fu Sheng, who succeeded Fu Jiàn after his death in 355. In 357, when Yao Xiang , a major Qiang chief, attacked Former Qin, hoping to conquer it, Fú Jiān was one of the generals who fought him and defeated him, capturing and executing him on the battlefield. Yao Xiang's brother Yao Chang surrendered. Initially, the lead general Fu Huangmei the Prince of Guangping wanted to put Yao Chang to death, but Fú Jiān interceded, and Yao Chang was spared.

Fu Sheng's reign was one filled with violence, caprice, and cruelty. As he killed official after official in his administration, all of the nobles and officials became fearful of being the next target. A number of officials tried to persuade Fú Jiān to overthrow Fu Sheng, and it was in the planning stages that Fú Jiān, under the introduction of the official Lü Polou , met , with whom he immediately developed a friendship. Fú Jiān planned to act against Fu Sheng but hesitated, since Fu Sheng was a powerful warrior. However, after news leaked that Fu Sheng had planned to kill Fú Jiān and his brother Fu Fa, Fú Jiān and Fu Fa took immediate action and attacked the palace while Fu Sheng was in a drunken stupor. Fu Sheng's guards surrendered without a fight, and Fú Jiān put Fu Sheng to death and took over the throne. He did not, however, take imperial title as Fu Sheng had, but claimed the title "Heavenly Prince" . He posthumously honored his father Fu Xiong as an emperor, and he honored his mother Lady Gou as an empress dowager. His wife was created empress.

Reign with the assistance of Wang Meng

At the start of Fú Jiān's reign, in addition to Wang Meng, he had several other top advisors -- his brothers Fu Fa and Fu Rong the Duke of Yangping, his son Fu Pi the Duke of Changle, and his mother Empress Dowager Gou's lover Li Wei . It was with Li's support that Wang's position became increasingly important, eventually becoming one of prime minister status. This was particularly the case when, around new year 358, Empress Dowager Gou, apprehensive of Fu Fa's growing authority, forced him to commit suicide. Senior officials, mostly of Di ethnicity, were often jealous of Wang, but whatever conflict they engaged with Wang always resulted in Wang's prevailing over them, since Wang was favored by Fú Jiān. Wang, with Fú Jiān's support, established rule of law throughout the empire, and he even executed the founding emperor Fu Jiàn's honored but corrupt brother-in-law, Qiang De , despite Fú Jiān's desire to pardon Qiang. It was described that the empire was ruled efficiently and justly during this period. Fú Jiān was also recorded as having the cruel laws of Fu Sheng's reign and the extravagance. He also encouraged his officials to recommend talented people for posts, and rewarded or punished them based on whether the people they recommended performed their jobs well. It was described that Former Qin officials were therefore all highly competent and responsible.

In 364, Fú Jiān conferred titles on Zhang Tianxi, the nominal vassal who was the ruler of Former Liang, making him a Former Qin vassal as well. In late 365, however, Zhang Tianxi disavowed that status and cut off relations with Former Qin.

Later in 364, Fu Sheng's brother Fu Teng the Duke of Ru'nan rebelled, but was captured and executed. Wang, concerned about four other brothers of Fu Sheng , suggested to Fú Jiān to have all of them killed. Fú Jiān refused.

Late in 364, Fú Jiān tried to restore the early Jin system by permitting the dukes -- his brothers, sons, and cousins -- to commission their own assistants. However, he cancelled the plans when some of the dukes retained rich merchants to serve as their assistants purely on account of their wealth.

In 365, after the Former Yan regent Murong Ke captured the important Jin city of Luoyang, he postured as if about to attack Former Qin. Fú Jiān personally readied his troops to face Murong Ke, but no attack from Murong Ke actually occurred.

Late in 365, Xiongnu chiefs Cao Gu and Liu Weichen rebelled together, and Fú Jiān personally attacked them, capturing Liu and forcing Cao's surrender -- but, in the first instance of such acttions that would lead to disaster decades later, allowed Cao and Liu to continue to command their troops. Later that year, Fu You rebelled but was killed in battle by Li, who had stayed at the capital Chang'an with Fú Jiān's crown prince Fu Hong .

In 367, after Murong Ke's death and replacement by the far less capable Murong Ping, Fú Jiān began plans to conquer Former Yan. He would soon, however, have to contend with the possibility that his empire would be the one so conquered, as in winter of that year, Fu Liu , Fu Sou ), Fu Wu , and Fú Jiān's brother Fu Shuang the Duke of Zhao , rebelled together, offering to submit to Former Yan and seeking Former Yan aid. However, Murong Ping refused assistance. Fú Jiān sent forces to attack the four rebellious dukes separately. Fu Wu and Fu Shuang were quickly defeated and killed, followed by Fu Liu and Fu Sou.

In 369, the paramount Jin general Huan Wen launched a major attack against Former Yan, reaching Fangtou , in the vicinity of Former Yan's capital . In panic, Former Yan sought assistance from Former Qin, promising that if Former Qin launched troops to assist, it would cede the Luoyang region to Former Qin. Most Former Qin officials opposed, but Wang advised Fú Jiān that he had to make sure that Huan would not conquer Former Yan -- because Former Qin would not be able to stand up to Jin if Jin destroyed Former Yan. Fú Jiān thus launched troops, which arrived after Former Yan's general Murong Chui had already dealt Huan one defeat, but the Former Qin forces, in conjunction with Former Yan, did deal Huan another major defeat. However, Former Yan reneged on its promise to cede the Luoyang region, and Fú Jiān put Wang in charge of a 60,000-men force against Former Yan. Wang's campaign seemed even more promising after Murong Chui, fearful of Murong Ping's jealousy and the emperor Murong Wei's mother 's hatred toward him, defected to Former Qin.

In spring 370, Wang first advanced on Luoyang and forced its surrender. He then advanced on Hu Pass , defeating all Former Yan resistance on the way. He then captured Jinyang . Murong Ping led a 300,000-men strong force against Wang, but apprehensive of Wang, he stopped at Lu River . Wang soon arrived to prepare to face off against him. Meanwhile, Murong Ping made the worst display of his corruption at this time -- keeping guards at forests and streams, disallowing commoners and even his own soldiers from cutting firewood or fishing unless they paid a usage fee in either money or silk. He soon had a stash of wealth, but completely lost the morale of his soldiers. Murong Wei, hearing this, sent a messenger to rebuke him and ordering him to distribute the wealth to the soldiers, but the damage was done. In winter 370, the armies engaged, and despite the numerical advantage that Murong Ping had, Wang crushed him, and Murong Ping fled back to Yecheng by himself. Murong Wei abandoned Yecheng and tried to flee to the old capital Helong , but was captured on the way. Fú Jiān pardoned him but had him formally surrender with his officials, ending Former Yan.

Initially, Fú Jiān put Wang Meng in charge of all of the conquered Former Yan territory, as viceroy. He relocated Murong Wei and his clan, as well as a large number of his Xianbei people, to the Guanzhong region, in the heart of Former Qin. In 372, he summoned Wang back to the capital to resume his post as prime minister, while putting Fu Rong in charge of the eastern empire. Wang's authority was described to be so great that Fú Jiān himself had little need to worry about the affairs of state.

Fú Jiān continued to carry out campaigns that were intended to eventually unite all of China. In 373, he launched a campaign against Jin's western region, conquering modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and southern Shaanxi. Meanwhile, many Former Qin officials, including Wang, became concerned about the large number of Xianbei people that he placed in the heart of the empire and how many Xianbei officials, including those of Former Yan's imperial Murong clan, he put in charge of important posts, and they largely urged him to reduce the authority of Xianbei officials. He refused. In 375, Wang became gravely ill, and he, on his death bed, suggested to Fú Jiān to stop the campaigns against Jin while not trusting the Xianbei and Qiang officials as much as he has done. After Wang died, however, Fú Jiān did not agree with his last words and continued to bestow authority on the Xianbei and Qiang officials.

After Wang Meng's death

After Wang Meng's death, Fú Jiān continued to carry out his campaigns to try to unite the empire. These campaigns, while largely successful, were, according to historical resources, draining on the resources of the empire and of the people, and wore out his troops. Further, Fú Jiān, who was known for thrifty living in his early years, began to spend somewhat extravagantly on palace designs. Further, one of Wang's focus areas -- to keep the governmental officials honest and competent -- appeared to have been ignored, as one began to see false governmental reports in historical records. For example, in 382, Former Qin suffered a major locust infestation that required a failed extermination effort throughout You , Qing , Ji , and Bing Provinces -- and yet the governmental records paradoxically recorded that these provinces, except You Province, received large yields on their crop fields, and that the locusts did not infest the hemp and bean plants, a fairly impossible scenario. This suggested that government officials were no longer reporting statuses of their provinces honestly but were only making reports that pleased Fú Jiān and the high level officials. This might be because Fú Jiān, after Wang's death, felt that he had to personally oversee everything, and was burdening himself with too many tasks, as evidenced in an edict that he issued in 376 indicating that his workload was burdening him so much that half of his hair turned white.

In fall 376, Fú Jiān launched a major attack against Former Liang, after its ruler Zhang Tianxi refused to show submission by visiting the Former Qin capital Chang'an and further killed Fú Jiān's messengers. Zhang's generals, who were displeased with the young favorites that he had installed in the regime, either surrendered or were defeated easily, and in less than a month, Zhang was forced to surrender, and Former Liang's territory were annexed to Former Qin. Just two months later, Fú Jiān launched another major campaign against and, in light of the recent assassination of its prince Tuoba Shiyijian by his son Tuoba Shijun , conquered it as well, although he permitted Tuoba Shiyijian's grandson to remain under the care of tribal chief Liu Kuren and be the eventual heir presumptive to the Dai throne.

In 378, Fú Jiān sent Fu Pi, Murong Wei, and Gou Chang to attack the important Jin border city of Xiangyang . At Gou's suggestion, Fu Pi ordered that Xiangyang be surrounded to force it into submission at minimal losses, but Fú Jiān, unhappy at his son's slow pace in capturing the city, ordered Fu Pi to either capture the city by spring 379 or commit suicide. Fu Pi therefore launched a major assault on the city, capturing it in spring 379. Weixing also fell. At the same time, however, another army sent by Fú Jiān, commanded by Peng Chao , after capturing Pengcheng , was defeated by the Jin general Xie Xuan and forced to abandon Pengcheng.

In 380, Fú Jiān's cousin Fu Luo the Duke of Xingtang, who felt slighted by not being sufficiently rewarded for his victories against Dai in 376 and believed that Fú Jiān had worn out his troops, rebelled. He was, however, crushed by the general Lü Guang and captured, but Fú Jiān did not kill him but only exiled him.

Also in 380, Fú Jiān carried out a historically controversial decision to distribute his Di people -- a small minority in his empire -- to various regions of the empire, under the command of his sons and other generals. He probably intended to have them serve as a stabilizing force throughout the empire, but the short-term result was that the heart of the empire, Guanzhong, was left with few Di and filled with Xianbei and Qiang, which would eventually cause a destabilizing effect. He also summoned his brother Fu Rong back to the capital and take over posts previously held by Wang Meng. Fu Pi replaced Fu Rong in his responsibilities as viceroy over the eastern empire.

In late 382, Fú Jiān again planned to conquer Jin. Most of the important officials opposed -- including the prime minister Fu Rong. However, the campaign was suppored by Murong Chui and Yao Chang, and Fú Jiān became intent to carrying it out, and when an official raised the point that the Yangtze River was difficult to cross, he made the remarks, "We have so many soldiers that, if they threw down their whips, it would be enough to stop the flow of the Yangtze."

In 383, Fú Jiān sent Lü on a campaign to Xiyu , where some of the kingdoms had submitted to Former Qin as vassals but some had not. Lü's campaign would last several years and be quite successful -- but by the time it was complete, Fú Jiān would be dead and Former Qin would be near destruction.

Battle of Fei River

In 383, Fú Jiān launched the campaign, under Fu Rong's command, despite Fu Rong's opposition. After initial victories, capturing the Jin city of Shouyang , the Former Qin advance troops would suffer some losses at the hands of Xie Xuan and Liu Laozhi , and the armies would be stalemated at the Fei River , with the Former Qin forces to the west of the river and the Jin forces to the east. Xie Xuan suggested to Fu Rong that he retreat west to allow Jin forces to cross, and Fú Jiān and Fu Rong agreed, but as the retreat started, the Former Qin forces panicked and could not be stopped. Fu Rong, trying to calm the troops, suddenly had his horse fall under him, and he was killed by Jin forces, which further led to a complete collapse of Former Qin forces. Fú Jiān himself was hit by a stray arrow, and was forced to flee to Murong Chui, whose army was one of the ffew that did not collapse. Murong Chui's son Murong Bao and brother Murong De tried to persuade him to kill Fú Jiān and reestablish Yan, but Murong Chui refused, escorting Fú Jiān safely back to Luoyang.

After the Battle of Fei River

Murong Chui, while not willing to resort to murder due to Fú Jiān's earlier kindness to him, did decide, however, to try to reestablish Yan. Under the pretense of wanting to calm the people of the eastern empire, he persuaded Fú Jiān to allow him to lead an army northeast, despite opposition by Quan Yi . As Murong Chui arrived at Yecheng, he and Fu Pi suspected each other but each ruled out suggestions by their respective subordinates to ambush the other. As, at this time, the Dingling chief Zhai Bin rebelled against Former Qin, with assistance with Murong Chui's nephew Murong Feng , and attacked Luoyang, and Fu Pi sent Murong Chui south to relieve Luoyang, with the Di general Fu Feilong as his assistant. On the way to Luoyang, Murong Chui ambushed Fu Feilong and slaughtered his Di soldiers, but still wrote an explanation to Fú Jiān. In spring 384, however, Murong Chui would join Zhai and claim the title Prince of Yan, establishing Later Yan. He soon captured many cities in the eastern empire, although Yecheng and Luoyang held out against him.

Meanwhile, Murong Chui's nephew and Murong Wei's brother Murong Hong, upon hearing news of Murong Chui's uprising, gathered some Xianbei soldiers and started his own rebellion within Guanzhong, claiming his old Former Yan title of Prince of Jibei and starting Western Yan. Fú Jiān sent his brother Fu Rui the Duke of Julu, assisted by Yao Chang, against Murong Hong. Murong Hong, in fear, was about to leave Guanzhong, and Fu Rui was intent on cutting off his escape route, despite Yao's suggestion to let the Xianbei leave. Instead, Murong Hong, forced into combat, defeated and killed Fu Rui. When Yao sent messengers to the capital to report the defeat, Fú Jiān, for reasons unknown, got so angry that he killed Yao's messengers -- causing Yao to panic and flee with Qiang soldiers. Yao then declared himself "the Prince of Qin of Ten Thousand Years" , establishing Later Qin.

Meanwhile, Murong Hong advanced on Chang'an, and he was joined by another brother, Murong Chong. He demanded that Fú Jiān escort Murong Wei to him, and Murong Wei, while pledging allegiance to Fú Jiān, secretly send messengers to Murong Hong urging him to attack Chang'an, although Murong Hong was then murdered by his own generals and replaced with Murong Chong, who claimed the title of crown prince. Meanwhile, Fú Jiān himself led an army against Yao, but was unsuccessful. Fú Jiān's son Fu Hui the Duke of Pingyuan then abandoned Luoyang to come to Chang'an's aid, and all of the eastern empire was lost except for Yecheng. Meanwhile, Jin also launched campaigns, and would recapture the modern Chongqing, Sichuan, and southern Shaanxi region by early 385, as well as capturing much of the Former Qin territory south of the Yellow River, although Jin forces under Xie Xuan would at times be in temporary alliance with Fu Pi against Later Yan as well.

In late 384, Murong Wei tried to kill Fú Jiān at a feast, and after this was discovered, Fú Jiān put him and the other Xianbei inside Chang'an to death. Murong Chong, upon hearing this news, declared himself emperor in early 385. He would continue to deal Fu Hui defeats, and Fu Hui, in anger over the defeats and Fú Jiān's rebukes in light of the defeats, committed suicide. With Murong Chong surrounding Chang'an, Chang'an fell into a terrible famine. Fú Jiān decided that he would lead an army out of the city to try to capture food supplies, and he left his crown prince Fu Hong in charge of the city, but as soon as he left, the city fell, and Fu Hong fled to Jin.

Meanwhile, Fú Jiān himself took his army to Wujiang Mountain , but was surrounded and captured by Later Qin forces and taken to Xinping and imprisoned there with his concubine Consort Zhang, his son Fu Shen the Duke of Zhongshan, and his daughter Fu Bao and Fu Jin . Yao Chang tried to persuade him to ceremonially pass the throne to him, but Fú Jiān, angry at Yao's betrayal, refused. He also killed Fu Bao and Fu Jin, reasoning that he did not want to let Yao's followers humiliate them. In fall 385, Yao sent his soldiers to strangle Fú Jiān. Consort Zhang and Fu Shen committed suicide. Even Later Qin soldiers mourned Fú Jiān, however, and Yao, in order to pretend as if he did not put Fú Jiān to death, posthumoustly honored him as Heavenly Prince Zhuanglie , although that posthumous name would not be adopted by Fu Pi, who took the imperial throne upon hearing Fú Jiān's death.

Era names

* ''Yongxing'' 357-359
* ''Ganlu'' 359-364
* ''Jianyuan'' 365-385

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